'S    SERIES. 


SB    30b    577 

^AT  BISTORT 


ELEMENTS   OF   BOTANY. 


PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 


SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 


W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D. 

•Surgeon  in  tba  U.  B.  Navy ;  Fello-w  of  the  College  of  Physicians ;  Hoa. 

*-"ho  Poiladelpliia  Medical  Society;  Member  of  the 
j  o;  Kc.tunbd  bcienccs  of  Philadelphia,  Jco.  &o. 


FROM  THE  TEXT  OF 


MILNE  EDWARDS,  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE, 

TROFESSORS  OF  NATURAL  HISTCRY  IN  THE  COLLEGES 
OF   HENRI  IV,   AND   CHARLEMAGNE. 


WITH    PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
GR1GG   &   ELLIOT, 

NO.  9   NOBTH   FOURTH   3T&Ei5T, 
1840. 


\T 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


S&DCAIIOH  LIBS, 


NEW  AND  IMPORTANT  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

TO  TEACHERS,  PRINCIPALS  AND  CONTROLLERS 

OF  SCHOOLS,  ACADEMIES  AND  COLLEG-ES 


We  take  the  liberty  of  calling  your  attention  to  a  Series 
of  Books  on  the  subject  of  Natural  History,  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  our  country, 
is  second  to  no  branch  of  knowledge  now  taught  in  schools. 
We  ask  your  attention  to  these  books,  because  we  believe 
them  to  be  superior  to  any  works  of  the  kind  ever  offered 
to  the  American  public.  They  are  small  in  size,  extremely 
cheap,  as  accurate  in  scientific  arrangement  as  the  most 
voluminous  works  on  similar  subjects,  and  in  every  respect, 
such  as  parents  and  teachers  would  wish  to  place  in  the 
hands  of  their  children.  In  confirmation  of  this  opinion  of 
the  worth  of  these  works,  we  respectfully  invite  your 
attention  to  the  following  testimonials. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servants, 

GRIGG  &  ELLIOT, 
JVb.  9  North  Fourth  Street,  Philad'a 


These  books  have  been  introduced  into  the  Public  Schools  of  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio,  and  no  doubt  will,  ere  long,  be  introduced  into  all  the  public  schools 
of  our  other  States. 

"We  regard  the  introduction  of  these  works  into  our  public  schools,  among  the 
highest  compliments  they  have  received ;  for  we  feel  sure  that  the  gentlemen 
who  constitute  the  committee  for  selecting  books,  possess  too  much  discernment 
and  general  knowledge,  to  pass  favourably  upon  works  of  inferior  pretensions. 
The  following  gentlemen  composed  the  Committee  for  selecting  books  for  the 
use  of  Public  Schools."  GEORGE  M.  WHARTON,  Esq. 

THOMAS  H.  FORSYTH,  Esq. 
GEORGE  EMLEN,  Jr.,  Esq. 

*  FRANCIS  LYONS,  Esq. 

JOHN  C.  SMITH,  Esq. 
Philadelphia. 

In  addition  to  the  following  flattering  notices  of  the  American  Press,  the  pub- 
lishers have  received  upwards  of  one  hundred  recommendations  from  the  most 
prominent  professors  and  distinguished  teachers  of  our  country,  to  the  superior 
claims  of  these  works,  and  urging  their  introduction  as  Class  Books  into  all  the 
Schools,  Academies,  &c.,  throughout  the  United  States. 


RUSCHENBERGER'S    SERIES. 


FIRST  BOOKS 


OF 


NATURAL    HISTORY, 

SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  AND  FAMILIES. 


1.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

2.  ELEMENTS  OF 

MAMMALOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Quadrupeds. 

3.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ORNITHOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Birds. 

4.  ELEMENTS  OF 

HEEPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Reptiles  aud  Fishes. 

5.  ELEMENTS  OF 

CONCHOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mollusca. 

6.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ENTOMOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Insects. 

7.  ELEMENTS  OF 

BOTANY, 

The    Natural  History  of  Plants. 

8.  ELEMENTS  OF 

GEOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  the  Earth's  Structure. 

This  interesting  series  of  books  has  already  met  with  the  mosl 
flattering  reception  ever  extended  to  any  work  issued  from  the  Amer- 
ican press.  Introduced  into  the  Public  Schools  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  nearly  all  the  first  class  seminaries  of  learning  in  the  United  States. 


RECOMMENDATORY   NOTICES. 

"  Ruschenberger's  Series  of  Books  on  Natural  History,  are  among  the 
most  valuable  and  useful  works,  for  the  use  of  Schools  that  have  ever  been 
published.  A  knowledge  of  Natural  History,  is  not  only  valuab'e,  but 
deeply  interesting;  and  no  one's  education  can,  with  such  faciliiies  as  these 
works  afford,  be  considered  complete  without  it." — National  Intelligencer. 

"These  are  the  most  valuable  ndditions  of  the  day  to  our  stock  of  School 
Books.  The  avidily  with  which  they  have  been  seized  upon  is  unprece- 
dented. Though  the  first  vol.  w.is  published  for  the  first  time  only  a  few 
months  ngo,  it  has  already  gone  through  its  fifth  edition;  the.  second  is  fol- 
lowing close  upon  its  heels;  and  the  third  promises  even  to  be  more  popular 
than  either  of  the  other  two.  These  books  have  been  adopted  by  the  *  Koyal 
Council  of  Public  Instruction,'  for  the  use  of  Sehoo's  throughout  France. 
They  are  recommended  and  have  been  adopted  by  some  of  the  most  emi 
nent  teachers  in  the  United  States." — Southern  Literary  Messenger. 

From  '  The  Ladies'  Companion,  a  Monthly  Magazine."  June,  1842, — New  York. 
W.  Snowden,  109,  Fulton  Street. 

"RUSCHENBKRGER'S  ORNITHOLOGY:  Grigg  &  Elliot.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent  boo!?,  by  one  who  shows  himself  perfectly  qualified  for  the  task  he  haa 
undertaken,  which  is  the  publishing  of  a  series  of  works  on  the  different 
branches  of  education,  for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges.  The  present 
issue  is  a  general  and  synopt:?al  view  of  Ornithology,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  subjects  in  Nature!  History,  and  will  be  found  of  great  service, 
both  to  teacher  and  student." 

"  This  is  a  compendious,  and,  as  it  seems  to  us.  a  judiciously  compiled 
treatise  on  Ornithology,  and  one  well  calculated  for  the  use  of  Schools ;  for 
which  object  it  is  intended." — N.  Y.  Courier  and  Enquirer. 

"  In  the  work  before  us,  the  plan  is  happily  carried  out.  In  its  small 
compass  it  embraces  an  immense  amount  of  useful  and  interesting  infor- 
mation."— Buffalo  Adv.  and  Journal. 

"  Ornithology.— This  is  evidently,  like  its  predecessors,  an  excellent  work 
of  instruction;  and  ha^  been,  in  all  respects  well  got  up  by  the  publishers."' 
— Pennsylvanian, 

"  A  valuable  little  work,  and  is  divided  up  and  classified  admirably.  The 
glossary,  giving  the  derivation  of  the  names  of  birds,  is  of  itself  worth  the 
price  of  the  volume." — New  York  Aurora. 

"An  exceedingly  interesting,  and  very  instructive  book,  and  one  which 
possesses  special  attraction  for  young  ladies." — Baltimore  Sun. 

"RUSCHENBERGER'S  SERIES  :  Second  Book. — A  highly  useful  and  instructive 
school  book.  Third  Book. — This  we  consider  as  decidedly  an  acquisition 
to  our  list  of  school  books,  the  subject  is  treated  of  in  such  a  plain  style  as 
to  be  adapted  to  the  simplest  capacity.  Altogether  we  think  the  above 
series  as  worthy  to  lake  a  high  and  permanent  place  among  our  school 
books." — Buffalo  Democrat. 

u  We  wish  we  could  induce  our  teachers  generally  to  examine  this,  as 
well  as  the  earlier  works  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger ;  they  are  admirably 
arranged,  and  just  the  very  books  needed  for  schools.  The  work  before 
us  on  the  Natural  History  of  Birds  is  an  admirable  one,  and  no  teachel 
should  neglect  to  introduce  the  series.  '—Cincinnati  Gazette. 

*  It  is  an  excellent  text  book  of  an  interesting  science,  comprising  much 
knowledge  in  a  brief  space,  presented  in  a  clear  style  and  with  lucid 
arrangement.  Dr.  Rupchenberger,  who  has  already  achieved  a  high  charac 
cer  in  the  literary  world,  is  acquiring  additional  claims  by  his  exertions  j» 
Ihe  field  of  Natural  Science.-  Spectator,  Washington  City. 


RECOMMENDATORY   NOTICES. 

**  Ruschenberger's  Series. — These  volumes  are  constructed  upon  a  new 
and  admirable  plan,  combining  great  simplicity  of  arrangement,  with  a 
perspicuity  and  sententiousness  of  style  seldom  found  in  works  of  this 
class;  and  which  has  elicited  the  highest  encomiums  of  upwards  of  thirty 
of  the  leading  professors  of  the  country,  whose  opinions  have  again  been 
endorsed  by  most  of  the  public  prints." — U.  States  Adv. 

"The  developement  of  the  principles  of  classification,  is  among  the  very 
best  we  have  ever  seen.  Science  is  here  dressed  in  her  own  native  sim- 
plicity and  beauty,  so  that  the  philosopher  may  admire,  while  the  child  may 
acquire  it. — Medical  Reporter. 

"  It  is  a  choice,  and  well  digested  work." — Atlas. 

"  An  excellent  publication  adapted  to  the  youthful  mind,  and  a  great  help 
to  the  more  matured." — Mercury. 

"The  study  of  Natural  History  though  generally  neglected  in  schools, 
is  of  undoubted  use  :  the  present  work  contains  a  great  amount  of  infor. 
malion  within  a  small  compass,  and  properly  condenses  it  for  the  young 
mind." — N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce. 

"  Ruschenberger's  Series. — The  subjects  are  Well  treated,  and  from  the 
exceeding  cheapness,  and  admirable  arrangemeuiof  these  elementary  works, 
they  are  well  fitted  for  general  use  in  public  schools  and  academies." — 
New  York  American. 

"We  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  this  is  the  best  work  of  the  kind  and 
dimensions,  that  has  even  fallen  under  our  notice.  We  hope  all  will  embrace 
the  first  opportunity  of  procuring  a  copy,  as  we  are  sure  they  will  prize 
it  highly." — Botanic  Recorder. 

"A  well  digested  and  carefully  arranged  abstract  of  the  most  interesting 
parts  of  Natural  Science." — Philadelphia  Gazette 

"  Admirably  adapted  to  convey  an  elementary  knowledge  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats;  and  will  be  found  an  excellent  book  for  the  student." — 
Public  Ledger. 

"  Valuable  in  every  respect,— it  contains  a  vast  amount  of  information, 
condensed  into  an  available  form,  for  the  use  of  schools." — Spirit  of  the  Times. 

"  Just  such  a  work  as  is  wanted  for  elementary  instruction,  in  this  pleas, 
ing  branch  of  science." — New  York  Evening  Post. 

"We  regard  this  series  as  eminently  useful,  supplying  adequately  the 

instruction  in  natural  history  necessary  to  a  proper  school  education." 

North  American. 

'*  It  is  an  excellent  little  work  for  the  purpose  designed,  written  in  a  clear 
and  familiar  style,  and  will  not  fail  to  facilitate  the  studies  of  those  who 
wish  to  make  themselves*  acquainted  with  the  subject." — Saturday  Courier. 

"Admirably  adapted  for  elementary  instruction."— Saturday  Chronicle. 

"  We  have  great  pleasure  in  recommending  it  as  an  excellent  elementary 
manual  on  the  subject." — Medical  Examiner. 

"Ornithology — This  book  is  equal  in  merit  to  the  first  and  second,  and 
is  a  most  valuable  work.  It  is  intended  for  the  use  of  schools  and  acade- 
mies, and  we  would  call  the  attention  of  parents  and  others  to  the  series  of 
books  to  which  this  belongs,  assuring  them  at  the  same  time,  that  it  will 
answer  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  better  than  any  other  work  of 
the  kind  that  we  ever  saw,  or,  in  our  opinion,  that  was  ever  published  in 
this  country.  It  is  divided  into  questions  and  answers,  contains  an  exten- 
sive and  valuable  Glossary,  and  is  illustrated  by  eight  Plates  ;  and  what  la 
more  the  price  is  so  very  low  that  every  person  can  aftord  to  purchase  it.— 
JVffw  Yoik  New  Era. 


RECOMMEiNDATORY  NOTICES. 

it  has  been  justly  observed,  that  "  the  double  effect  of  the  study  «f  I\fatural  TIL'toi  jr 
IB  to  impart  certainty  to  the  mind,  and  religion  to  the  heart,"  and  the  Christian  no  les» 
than  the  man  of  science,  must  rejoice  in  every  effort  to  throw  more  widely  open  the 
sublime  and  boundless  field  which  it  presents.  Tins  is  the  design  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger, 
in  a  series  of  First  Books  of  Natural  History,  which  he  is  preparing  foi  the  use  of 
schools  and  colleges. — Banner  of  the  Cross. 

The  series  have  i/iet  a  demand  and  sale  in  France  almost  unparalleled,  and  the  words 
are  well  adapted,  not  only  for  schools,  but  for  popular  reading  and  instruction.  Thia 
work  is  from  the  French  of  Edwards  and  Comte,  and  has  received  the  warm  commen- 
dation of  many  of  the  best  physicians  and  scholars  in  this  country — JV".  Y.  Eve.  Tattler. 

It  is  highly  commended  by  the  very  best  authorities. — JV*.  Y.  Tribune. 

This  book  is  highly  commended  by  competent  judges,  and  we  therefore  give  our  so- 
lemn opinion  that  it  is  an  excellent  work. — Boston  Daily  Times. 

A  small,  but  very  valuable  work.— Boston  Evening  Transcript. 

We  have  examined  this  new  book  for  schools  and  colleges,  with  peculiar  gratification. 
The  style  is  succinct  and  clear,  and  the  subject  illustrated  by  appropriate  drawings.  We 
tliould  be  glad  to  see  this  work  introduced  into  all  the  schools.  It  teaches  knowledge 
Ihe  most  important,  which  has  been,  however,  strangely  overlooked  in  our  school  and 
college  system.  It  is  a  book  which  should  not  be  confined  to  seminaries  alone  It  may 
be  used  with  advantage  by  all  individuals  in  society.  We  repeat,  it  is  in  all  respects  a 
most  excellent  work,  and  we  hope  will  receive  the  attention  and  patronage  it  merits.— 
Brooklyn  Evening  Star. 

A  valuable  work;  we  have  read  it  with  profit. — JV".  Y.  Mercury. 

We  are  highly  pleased  with  this  work.  For  elementary  instruction  in  families, 
schools,  and  colleges,  it  is  decidedly  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  we  have  seen.  It 
gives  much  valuable  information  in  a  very  small  space,  and  in  style  it  is  generally  free 
from  obstruse  technicalities  It  has  already  received  the  highest  recommendations  from 
a  large  number  of  professional  men  in  different  parts  of  the  country  ;  and  it  must  have, 
we  think,  a  general  circulation.  It  gives  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  should  be  dif. 
fused  among  the  mass  of  the  people,  and  it  must  and  will  be  patronised  as  far  as  its 
merits  are  known. — Zion's  Watr.hm.an. 

This  is  a  fine  little  book,  containing  the  elements  of  much  useful  learning,  illustra- 
ted by  anatomical  plates  of  the  human  figure,  its  organs  and  (heir  functions.  It  is  a 
highly  useful  work  to  the  student— indeed  to  every  citizen  it  shows  how  fearfully  and 
wonderfully  we  are  made,  and  what  slight  causes  may  derange  and  utterly  destroy  lite 
complicated  machine. —  The  Olive  Branch 

A  very  useful  little  work.— JV.  Y.  dtlas. 

As  far  as  we  are  competent  to  determine,  it  may  safely  be  welcomed  as  an  important 
addition  to  the  means  of  elementary  instruction  in  natural  science,—  The  Friend. 

We  recommend  it  as  a  highly  instructive  publication. — JV".  Y.  Times  and  Eve.  Star. 

This  is  a  most  valuable  work,  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger,  and  most  admirably  are  the 
plates,  representing  all  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  done.  It  is  cheap,  and  every  pa 
rent  should  place  one  in  the  hands  of  their  children. — JV".  Y.  Herald. 

We  have  examined  this  little  volume  with  much  pleasure,  and  think  it  admirably 
adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  Animal  Mechanism,  as  a  study,  has 
generally  been  neglected,  except  by  the  few,  whose  profession  requires  a  knowledge  of 
it,  and  who  have  time  to  spare  in  acquiring  that  knowledge.  A  prominent  cause  of 
the  neglect  of  this  useful  and  interesting  science  by  the  general  student,  is,  the  want 
of  a  suitable  treatise  upon  the  subject,  those  extant  being  too  voluminous,  technical, 
and  expensive  for  general  use.  The  little  work  before  us  is  happily  calculated  to  sup- 
ply this  want.  It  will,  we  think,  be  introduced  into  our  schools  and  colleges  as  a  text- 
book,  but  its  circulation  ought  not  to  be  confined  there.  Every  private  library  should 
be  considered  incomplete  without  it. — JV".  Y.  Mechanic. 

It  seems  to  us  to  be  well  suited  for  the  object  for  which  it  is  designed,  and  it  witi 
doubtless  be  introduced  into  many  of  our  elemer  \ary  schools. —  The  American  Juurn«4 
of  Uie  Medical  Sciences. 


OPINION    OF    THE    PUBLIC    PRESS. 

**  Such  a  little  treatise  is  just  the  thing  for  our  schools  and  academies  and 
no  time  should  be  lost  in  introducing  it." — Neia  York  Mirror. 

"  This  is  a  most  excellent  work,  and  we  would  most  respectfully  recom- 
mend it  to  our  common  school  tru  tees,  as  worthy  of  introduction  into  the 
temples  of  learning1  under  their  supervision." — New  York  New  Era. 

"The  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  work  are  admirable,  and  eminently 
calculated  to  facilitate  the  progress  of  the  pupil. — We  recommend  it  to 
teachers  and  head.s  of  families." — Philadelphia  Sat.  Chronicle. 

"  We  know  of  no  books  better  calculated  to  convey  elementary  instruction 
than  these,  and  heartily  recommend  those  which  have  appeared." — Brothei 
Jonathan. 

"We  cannot  too  earnestly  recommend  it  to  public  attention." — Cincinnati 
Enquirer. 

"  Decidedly  one  of  the  best  elementary  works  on  the  subject  with  which 
we  have  ever  met." — New  York  Lancet. 

"The  information  it  contains  is  at  once  lucid,  intelligible,  and  satisfactory; 
it  forms  an  excellent  text-book  for  classes  in  schools,  and  cannot  fail  to 
infuse  into  the  young  mind  a  knowledge  and  love  of  Natural  History.  It 
is  concise  and  comprehensive,  and  must  if  adopted  in  seminaries  of  learning 
be  exceedingly  useful  in  inculcating  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  elements  o 
Zoology.  The  plan  is  excellent,  and  must  be  found  eminently  useful."— 
Alexandria  Gazette. 

"  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  kind  we  have  erer  read. — 
Such  are  the  books  we  like  to  see  disseminated  among  the  people." — New 
Orleans  American. 

"The  reputation  of  the  author  is  a  guarantee  that  the  work  is  a  good  one. 
On  examination  we  find  it  to  be  so.  tt  is  an  admirable  compend  of  the 
subjects  of  which  it  treats: — we  should  think,  indeed,  that  it  would  attract 
the  attention  of  teachers,  both  from  its  cheapness,  and  the  admirable  manner 
in  which  it  is  arr  mged." — Cincinnati  Gazette. 

"  The  Second  Book: — this  number  treats  of  all  animals  that  in  infancy 
feed  on  the  milk  of  their  mothers;  from  the  human  being  down  to  the  mus- 
quito-catching  bat.— Like  the  "  First  Book,"  it  is  divided  into  questions  and 
answers,  and  a  glossary  ;  and  is  illustrated  by  six  plates.  It  is  as  cheap  as 
dirt;  and  contains  an  abundance  of  useful  information.  There  are  thousands 
of  persons  in  this  country,  and  millions  in  Europe,  who  do  not  know  that 
whales  give  milk." — New  York  Era. 

"We  do  not  know  a  more  useful  set  than  this  promises  to  be : — and  IS." — 
New  York  Aurora. 

"  We  hesitate  not  to  say  that  it  is  a  valuab!e  work,  and  fully  entitled  to 
the  high  encomiums  bestowed  upon  it ;  taken  as  a  whole  the  work  may  be 
juhily  regarded  as  invaluable  to  schools." — New  York  Standard. 

u  It  is  a  most  valuable  work,  and  one  which  we  believe  has  no  superior  in 
our  seminaries, — we  know  of  nothing  equal  to  it.  It  is  very  flatteringly 
recommended  by  the  most  distinguished  men  in  France  and  in  the  United 
States,  and  deserves  it." — New  York  Courier  and  Enquirer. 

Ruschenberger's  So cond- Book  of. Natural  History. — "This  is  another  o. 
those  useful  volumes,  which  Dr.  Ru.*chenberger  is  so  beneficially  in  editing. 
His  former  volume  has  already  been  received  into  some  of  our  public  school* 
and  we  hope  both  it  and  the  present  may  find  their  way  into  all." — American 
Medical  Intelligencer. 

The  present  work,  is  in  our  opinion  quite  a  desideratum,  and  abounds 
with  information  of  the  most  useful  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  necessary 
character,  every  parent  should  place  it  in  the  hands  of  his  children,  and  no 
public  instructor  should  neglect  to  give  it  a  place  in  his  academy. — Phila 
delphia  Spirit  of  the  Times. 


RECOMMENDATORY    NOTICES. 

ORNITHOLOGY. — This  is  No  3,  and  like  its  predecessors  is  excellent 
These  are  the  most  valuable  additions  of  the  day  to  our  stuck  of  School- 
Books.  The  avidity  with  which  they  have  been  seized  upon  is  unproce 
dented.  Though  the  first  vol.  was  published  'or  the  first  time  only  a  Ie\\* 
months  ago,  it  has  already  gone  into  the  fifth  edition;  the  second  is  fol- 
lowing close  upon  its  heels;  and  the  third  promises  to  be  even  more  popular 
than  either  of  the  other  two.  These  books  h  ive  been  adopted  by  the 
"Royal  Council  of  Public  In.-truotion"  lor  the  use  of  Schools  ihrougliout 
France.  They  are  recommended  and  have  been  adopted  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  teachers  in  the  United  States. — Southern  Lit  Mes, 

The  present  book  conveys  a  large  amovnt  of  useful  and  pleasing 
information  on  Ornithology.  The  structure,  functions,  and  habits  of  Birds, 
are  classified  and  grouped  in  such  a  manner  as  to  gratify  the  student  of 
Natural  History,  and  at  l\  e  same  time  to  aid  the  tyro  in  remembering  the 
oeculiarities  of  individual  birds,  and  their  various  points  of  resemblances  to 
others  of  their  family. — Bulletin  of  Medical  Science. 

The  Third  Book  of  Natural  History  is  worthy  of  being  placed  alongside 
the  first  and  second.  Ol  thrse  we  have  already  spoken;  and  we  may  now, 
we  presume,  congratulate  Dr.  Ruschenberger  and  the  publishers,  that 
sufficient  encouragement  has  been  received  t>  induce  them  to  Continue  their 
interesting  and  instructive  series. —  American  Medical  Intelligencer. 

The  series  of  books  of  which  this  forms  a  part  has  been  highly  and  justly 
commended  bv  the  ablest  judge?,  HS  furnishing  rare  facilities  in  the 
acquisition  of  branches  of  knowledge,  but  too  much  neglected  in  our  schools. 
We  have  examined  the  volumes  with  much  care,  and  we  find  them  well 
deserving  all  the  praise  bestowed  on  them. — Cody's  Lady's  Book. 

DR.  RUSCIIENBFRGER'S  series  of  books  on  Natuial  History  are  among  the 
most  valuable  and  u-eful  works  for  the  use  of  schools  that  have  ever  been 
published.  The  text  is  that  of  two  d.  stugir.shed  French  Naturalists,  Milne 
Edwards  and  Achille  Comte — translg'.ed  und  prepared  for  the  use  of 
schools  and  colleges  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger,  who  deserves  great  credit  for 
thus  devoting  his  leisure  to  so  useful  an  object.  A  knowledge  of  Natural 
History  is  not  only  valuable,  but  deeply  interesting,  nnd  no  one's  education 
can,  with  such  facilities  as  are  now  offered,  be  considered  complete  without 
it.  Simple  and  comprehensive  as  the  elements  of  this  science  have  been 
made  by  the  French  professors  and  Dr.  R.,  and  adopted  as  they  should 
be,  in  schools  and  colleges,  it  would  be  inexcusable  in  any  youth  to  be 
ignorant  of  these  elements,  and  having  acquired  them  he  will  find  it  equally 
easy  and  pleasant  to  enlarge  his  knowledge  by  consulting  more  extended 
works,  and  devoting  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the  various  branches  of 
this  interesting  science.  The  present  book  on  Ornithology  is  upon  the  same 
plan  and  possesses  the  same  merit  as  those  that  have  preceded  it,  and  which 
have  been  received  with  deserved  commendation.  It  is  brief  and  compre- 
hensive, but  sufficiently  full  to  give  the  student  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  elements  of  Ornithology.  It  contains  also  a  Glossary  of  the  terms  used 
in  this  branch  of  Natural  History,  and  a  number  of  wood  cuts  illustrative 
of  the  matter  contained  in  the  body  of  the  work. —  Washington  Nationa, 
Intelligencer 

Precisely  the  work  to  place  in  the  hands  of  young  people. — Madisonian. 

"  We  have  much  pleasure  in  commending  this  series  of  works — the  third 
ef  which  now  before  us,  is  rn  Ornithology,  It  will  be  found  useful  in  the 
§chool-roorw,  01  the  private  study."—  U.  S  Gazette. 

7 


RECOMMENDATORY  NOTICES. 

From  the  Carolinian,  Fayetteville,  N.  C. 

These  books  are  the  first  books,  or  elements  of  the  different  studies  of 
which  they  treat  ;  calculated  to  convey  the  ideas  without  that  labour  of 
thought  which  might  otherwise  be  attendant  upon  the  commencement  of  the 
study.  The  great  difficulty  with  the  mind  is  to  get  a  clear  conception  or 
understanding  of  first  principles  or  rudiments  of  a  study  ; — these  once  ob- 
tained, and  the  whole  course  is  clear  and  smooth.  These  books  of  Grigg  & 
Elliot,  we  think,  so  far  as  we  are  capable  of  judging,  are  admirably  calcu- 
lated to  this  end  of  simplifying,  what  to  the  young  learner  would  appear 
abstruse.  They  are  for  sale  at  Mr.  Hardie's  Book  Store,  on  Hay  Street. 

From  the  Daily  Herald,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

They  are  published  by  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  of  Philadelphia,  and  are 
for  sale  in  this  city  by  Messrs.  A.  H.  Maltby  and  S.  Babcock.  As  element- 
ary works  they  can  hardly  fail  to  be  found  useful  in  the  stuily  of  the  various 
branches  of  science  which  they  embrace,  and  are  at  least  worthy  of  the  can- 
did examination  of  all  Teachers  and  Proprietors  of  Schools,  Academies  and 
Colleges,  to  whom  the  publishers'  notice  is  particularly  addressed.  Ques- 
tions, Glossaries,  &c.,  are  appended,  to  give  all  the  necessary  facilities  to  the 
student  and  the  teacher. 

From  the  Morning  Courier,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

From  a  cursory  examination  of  the  work,  and  the  consideration  of  the 
importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  various  subjects  treated  of, 
as  well  as  from  the  numerous  testimonials  which  accompany  the  work — we 
are  inclined  to  the  belief  that  it  is  one  of  much  merit,  and  worthy  the  atten- 
tion of  both  teachers  and  learners. 

OPINION  OF  JOHN  FROST,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Belles  Leltres  in  the  High  School  of  Philadelphia. 

Dear  Sir, — I  am  delighted  with  your  little  book.  It  will  form  a  very  im- 
portant addition  to  the  means  of  elementary  instruction  in  natural  science. 
The  subjects  which  it  embraces  form  a  part  of  our  course  of  instruction  in 
the  Central  High  School  of  this  city,  and  we  consider  this  branch  among  the 
most  important  means  of  developing  the  powers,  storing  the  minds  and  form- 
ing the  habits  of  our  students.  I  shall  do  my  utmost  to  bring  your  book 
into  general  use;  because  I  am  greatly  pleased  with  your  plan,  and  I  think  it 
will  do  much  towards  directing  the  public  attention  to  that  much  neglected, 
but  important  branch  of  science — the  natural  history  of  man. 

Very  truly  and  respectfully  yours, 

To  DH.  RUSCHESBERGKR.  JOHN  FROST. 

GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S 
NEW  SERIES  OF  COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS, 

NUMBERS  FIRST,  SECOND,  THHID,  AND  FOURTH. 

These  books  are  particularly  adapted  for  an  introduction  into  the  School* 
generally  in  the  South  and  West ;  and  Teachers  who  feel  a  deep  interest  m 
promoting  the  welfare  of  their  pupils,  will  no  doubt,  after  a  careful  examina 
tioi,  give  them  a  preference  over  all  other  Readers  now  in  use. 


GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S 

NEW   SERIES   OF 

COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS, 

Numbers  First,  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth. 

These  books  are  particularly  adapted  for  an  introduction  into  the  Schools  gene- 
rally in  the  South  and  West ;  and  Teachers  who  feel  a  deep  interest  in  promoting 
the  welfare  of  their  pupils,  will,  no  doubt,  after  a  careful  examination,  give  them 
the  preference  over  all  other  Readers  now  in  use. 


To  Teachers,  Principals  and  Controllers  of  Schools,  Acade- 
mies and  Colleges,  throughout  the  United  States. 

LEE'S  PORT,  BERKS  Co.,  AUG.  25,  1845. 
Messrs.  Grigg  $  Ettiot  : 

GENTLEMEN,— Accept  my  thanks  for  the  series  of  Readers  you  were  so  kind  as 
to  send  me  by  my  friend  Dr.  Darrah,  when  he  was  last  in  the  c;ty.  I  consider 
them  decidedly  the  best  School  Readers  I  have  met  with.  I  have  introduced  them 
into  the  school  at  this  place,  and  find  them  fully  to  answer  my  expectations.  I  have 
also  introduced  Grimshaw's  History  of  the  United  States,  another  of  your  valuable 
School  publications.  I  arn  very  much  pleased  with  Dr.  Ruschenberger's  works  on 
Anatomy  and  Botany,  which  you  kindly  sent  me.  They  appear  to  be  just  the 
works  needed  to  bring  the  subject  of  Natural  History  within  the  compass  of  our 
Common  Schools ;  and  I  intend,  during  the  coming  winter,  to  make  an  effort  to 
introduce  the  subject  into  the  school  here ;  and  for  this  purpose,  I  would  like  to 
possess  the  whole  series  of  eight  uniform  volumes,  which  I  have  requested  Dr. 
Darrah  to  procure  for  me.  Very  respectfully,  H.  C.  BAKER, 

Principal  Lee's  Port  Seminary. 


From  the  WTiig  Courier,  Pulaski,  Tenn. 

SCHOOL  BOOKS.— We  have  received,  by  the  hands  of  Messrs.  Martin  & 
Topp,  of  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  Philadelphia,  a  copy  of  their  "  New  Series  of 
Common  School  Readers."  As  this  series  has  been  so  often  recommended  to  Teach- 
ers, School  Committees  and  Parents,  by  the  press,  and  so  far  as  we  are  able  to 
judge,  justly,  properly  and  worthily  too,  we  feel  no  hesitancy  in  endorsing  the  fol- 
lowing— from  JOHN  FROST,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Belles  Letters  in  the  Philadel- 
phia High  School : — 

'  I  have  examined  your  Readers  with  great  pleasure,  and  have  no  hesitation  in 
recommending  them  to  the  special  favour  of  Parents,  Teachers,  and  School  Com- 
mittees ;  they  are  calculated  to  be  eminently  interesting  to  the  young,  from  the 
happy  style  of  narration,  dialogue  and  description,  which  pervades  the  series ;  but 
their  chief  excellence  is  their  UNEXCEPTIONABLE  MORAL  TENDENCY.  It  would 
hardly  be  too  much  to  say,  they  comprise  a  complete  system  of  moral  instruction, 
and  in  this  point  of  view,  I  know  of  no  books  used  in  Common  Schools  which  are 
preferable  to  them." 


GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS. 


From  the  Philadelphia  Gazette. 

These  are  four  little  volumes  to  be  used  in  schools,  as  reading  books.  They 
afford  progressive  exercises  for  the  learner  in  the  art  of  reading,  at  the  same  time 
that  they  convey  a  large  amount  of  useful  knowledge,  particularly  adapted  to  the 
vrants  of  the  rising  generation  of  this  country.  This  is  a  most  important  part  of 
elementary  instruction,  to  which  less  than  due  attention  has  been  paid.  We  cor- 
dially endorse  the  commendation  of  the  series  given  by  Professor  Frost,  of  the 
High  School. 

From  the  Alabama  Reporter,  Talladega. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  of  Philadelphia,  have  kindly  sent  us  a  copy  of  then* 
series  of  Common  School  Readers,  numbered  1,  2,  3  and  4.  We  have  examined 
them  carefully  and  find  them  first  rate  books  for  children  just  commencing  to  read, 
number  2  being  for  those  a  little  further  advanced,  and  number  3  for  those  still 
further.  Their  moral  tendency  is  unexceptionable,  and  withal  they  amuse  the 
learner,  while  they  convey  instruction  in  the  rudiments  of  the  most  valuable  arts 
and  sciences,  and  history.  We  take  great  pleasure  in  recommending  them  with 
confidence  to  parents,  teachers,  and  all  those  who  have  the  care  of  the  young  of 
either  sex.  The  books  are  for  sale  by  Messrs.  John  Hardie  &  Co.  of  Mardisville. 

From  the  Philadelphia  Enquirer  $  Courier. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  No.  9  north  Fourth  street,  have  just  published  Nos.  1, 
2,  3  and  4  of  their  new  series  of  Common  School  Readers.  These  are  among  the 
best  works  of  the  kind  that  are  issued  in  our  country.  Professor  Frost,  of  the 
High  School,  recommends  them  to  the  especial  attention  of  parents,  teachers  and 
school  committees,  and  says  they  are  calculated  to  be  eminently  interesting  to  the 
young,  from  the  happy  style  of  narration,  dialogue  and  description,  which  pervades 
the  series ;  but  their  chief  excellence  is  their  unexceptionable  moral  tendency. 
They  are  issued  in  a  cheap  and  substantial  form,  and  are  sold  at  very  low  prices. 

From  the  North  American. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot  have  issued  four  books,  designed  as  progressive  exer- 
cises in  reading,  for  the  use  of  learners.  The  object  of  publications  of  this  kind  is 
an  important  one,  and,  until  of  late  years,  it  has  not  sufficiently  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  those  who  labour  especially  in  the  cause  of  juvenile  instruction.  The  plan 
of  these  books  is  to  afford  not  only  exercises  in  reading  as  an  art,  but  to  convey  at 
the  same  time,  peculiarly  useful  knowledge  for  the  rising  generation  of  this  country. 
We  cordially  endorse  the  commendation  of  the  series  given  by  Professor  Frost,  of 
the  High  School. 

From  the  Democratic  Recorder,  Fredericksburg,  Va. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  Philadelphia,  for  a 
new  series  of  reading  books  for  schools,  just  issued  by  them.  We  have  examined 
them  with  care,  and  recommend  them  with  much  pleasure.  The  introductory  le»- 


GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS. 


sons  are  well  calculated  to  induce  a  fondness  for  reading,  and  to  imprint  upon  the 
youthful  mind  the  soundest  moral  impressions.  One  great  fault  of  some  other  read- 
ing books,  is  completely  remedied  in  this : — the  transition  from  one  book  to  the 
other  is  easy  and  natural.  The  scholar  is  not  presumed  to  have  doubled  his  know- 
ledge when  his  text  book  is  doubled  in  size.  The  embellishments  (a  thing  not  to 
be  neglected  when  catering  for  juveniles)  are  remarkably  good.  To  be  had  at 
White's. 

t-  

From  the  Washington  (Pa.)  Reporter. 

We  are  indebted,  through  Mr.  H.  M.  Koontz  &  Co.,  to  the  firm  of  Grigg  &  El- 
liot, extenlive  book  publishers  of  Philadelphia,  for  a  complete  "series of  Common 
School  Readers,"  comprised  in  4  volumes.  We  have  given  them  a  cursory  peru- 
sal, and  also  handed  them  to  an  esteemed  female  teacher,  an  admirable  judge  in 
such  matters,  who  unites  with  us  in  pronouncing  them  most  meritorious. 

The  series  is  handsomely  gotten  up,  being  interspersed  with  appropriate  engrav- 
ings. The  arrangement  is  excellent,  and  the  matter  unexceptionable  in  its  moral 
tone  and  tendency. 

From  the  Heading  Gazette. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  of  Philadelphia,  have  favoured  us  with  copies  of  their 
new  series  of  Common  School  Readers,  selected  from  some  of  the  best  works  of 
their  kind,  and  prepared  for  the  gradual  instruction  of  scholars,  which  would  be 
found  of  great  service  if  introduced  into  all  our  common  schools. 

The  Reader,  No.  1,  is  prepared  specially  for  beginners,  and  contains  pieces 
easily  intelligible,  instructive  and  interesting,  illustrated  with  engravings,  and  treats 
of  matters  and  in  language  such  as  any  child  can  understand. 

Reader,  No.  2,  is  the  old  Pleasing  Companion,  a  work  which  has,  for  some 
years,  held  a  deserved  esteem  in  school  instruction.  The  selections  it  comprises,  it 
is  well  known,  are  of  the  most  pleasing  kind ;  and  instead  of  making  reading  a 
task,  sufficiently  interests  the  scholar  to  read  and  understand  its  fascinating  instruc- 
tions. 

Reader,  No.  3,  is  another  work  of  reputation— and  its  admirable  lessons  of  moral 
and  religious  instruction,  have  secured  it  a  place  in  many  schools.  The  object  of 
the  work — "  to  inculcate  the  necessity  and  duty  of  general,  domestic  and  national 
economy  and  simplicity  of  manners,"  is  one  of  interest  to  every  patriot ;  and  there 
certainly  can  be  no  better  mode  to  perpetuate  that  object,  than  to  instruct  the  rising 
generation  in  its  principles. 

An  examination  of  the  work  will  strictly  satisfy,  that  if  the  end  be  not  accom- 
plished, it  is  no  fault  of  the  compiler. 

From  the  Gallatin  (Tenn.)  Union. 

We  acknowledge  the  receipt,  from  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  Philadelphia,  of  four 
volumes  of  reading  books  for  common  schools.— From  a  cursory  review  of  their 
contents  we  are  well  pleased  with  them,  and  would  recommend  them  to  be  used  in 
our  schools. 


GRIOO  &  ELLIOT'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS. 


From  the  U.  S.  Gazette. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot  have  published  a  series  of  reading  books  for  common 
schools,  prepared  with  a  special  reference  to  the  progression  of  scholars,  each  les- 
son referring  to  some  subject  of  interest  to  the  young,  so  that  the  pupil  will  have 
an  interest  in  his  lesson,  and  not  read  merely  because  "  it  is  his  turn  now." 

The  compiler  of  the  work  has  had  a  special  eye  to  sound  morals,  to  pure  bene- 
volence, and  to  the  application  for  good  of  all  his  pieces,  and  hence  his  series  com- 
mend themselves  to  high  approval.  We  have  some  special  acquaintance  with  the 
use  of  the  works,  and  are  glad  to  see  that  the  first  is  a  proper  introduction  to  its 
successor ;  so  that  we  may,  and  do,  confidently  recommend  the  series  as  eminently 
deserving  a  place  in  schools,  as  well  from  their  moral  tendency,  as  from  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  contents  to  the  progression  of  the  scholar  in  classes. 



From  the  Olive  Branch,  Youngstown,  Ohio. 

Grigg  &  Elliot,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  have  published  a  new  series  of  Common 
School  Books,  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4.  They  are,  so  far  as  our  opinion  is  worth  any 
thing,  worthy  of  being  adopted  by  an  enlightened  public ;  their  chief  excellence 
being  the  moral  instructions  communicated. 

They  are  highly  recommended  by  distinguished  literary  gentlemen  in  the  east. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot  have  a  variety  of  other  School  Books,  which  they  flatter 
themselves  are  equally  worthy  of  general  reception  by  the  intelligent  part  of  our 
community. 

From  the  Harrison  Republican,  Cadiz,  Ohio. 

We  have  now  on  our  table,  through  the  politeness  of  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  of 
No.  9,  North  4th  St.  Philadelphia,  their  New  Series  of  Common  School  Readers, 
comprising  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4.  The  books  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  West — 
and  we  think  no  way  inferior  to  the  Eclectic  Readers,  that  have  gained  so  much 
celebrity  among  us — which  have  been  imposed  upon  the  public  at  an  exorbitant 
price  by  the  publisher.  The  New  Series  are  intended  to  answer  the  place  of  the 
Eclectic,  at  much  lower  prices,  and  embracing  all  of  the  facilities  of  the  former. 

From  the  Charleston  Mercury. 

Messrs.  Grigg  &.  Elliot,  Philadelphia,  have  published  an  interesting  series  of 
books,  which  we  commend  to  the  attention  of  teachers.  A  series  of  Readers, 
adapted  to  successive  classes,  which  seem  to  us  well  selected  and  arranged.  A  far 
more  important  series,  and  one  long  called  for,  in  the  shape  of  elementary  scientific 
treatises  on  the  following  subjects : — MAMMALOGY  :  ORNITHOLOGY  :  HERPETOLO- 
LOGY  and  ICHTHYOLOGY  :  BOTANY  :  CONCHOLOGY  :  ANATOMY  arid  PHYSIOLOGY. 
These  works  are  prepared  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger,  on  the  plan  and  materials  of 
similar  books  used  in  the  public  schools  of  France.  They  are  illustrated  with  the 
necessary  plates,  and  are  complete  in  their  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  undoubt- 
edly deserve  a  place  in  our  now  meagre  list  of  elementary  class  books  of  science. 
These  works  are  for  sale  by  McCarter  &  Allen. 


GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS. 


From  the  Indiana  State  Journal,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Our  friend  Davis  has  now  for  sale  a  new  and  valuable  lot  of  books,  among 
which  is  a  very  valuable  series  of  School  Books,  viz  :  Grigg  <$•  Elliot's  New  Series 
of  Common  School  Readers.  These  Readers  are  comprised  of  four  parts  adapted 
to  the  youngest  and  more  advanced  class  of  children.  We  have  attentively  exa- 
mined these  books,  and  have  no  hesitation  in  recommending  them  as  the  cheapest 
and  most  useful  series  that  has  come  under  our  observation. 


From  the  Sangamo  Journal. 

We  have  received  from  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  Philadelphia,  a  scries  of  read- 
ing books  for  common  schools;  "prepared  with  a  special  reference  to  the  pro- 
gression of  scholars,  each  lesson  referring  to  some  subject  of  interest  to  the  young, 
so  that  the  pupil  will  have  an  interest  in  his  lesson,  and  not  read  merely  because 
'it  is  his  turn  now.'  " 

From  the  Galena  Sentinel. 

Grigg  &  Elliot's  new  series  of  Common  School  Readers,  comprising  four  num- 
bers, have  been  laid  on  our  table  ;  they  will  be  found  for  sale  at  the  store  of  F.  & 
N.  Stahl.— After  giving  them  a  careful  examination,  we  cannot  give  them  a  better 
recommendation  than  the  flattering  notices  we  have  seen,  from  John  Frost,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  Belles  Lettres  in  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  and  others. 


From  the  Caddo  Gazette,  Shreeveport,  La. 

We  have  received  from  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  of  Philadelphia,  through  our 
fellow  townsman,  J.  W.  Morris,  four  numbers  of  the  Common  School  Reader, 
designed  for  the  use  of  common  schools  and  families.  From  the  examination 
which  we  have  given  them,  we  are  compelled  to  say  that  they  are  admirably 
adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  designed.  No.  1  contains  a  series  of 
simple  narratives  entirely  within  the  comprehension  of  any  child,  and  the  syllables 
are  divided  so  as  greatly  to  facilitate  pronunciation. — Nos.  2  and  3  contain,  the  first, 
familiar  stories,  well  calculated  to  interest  the  youthful  mind;  the  last  a  "  Moral 
Instructor  and  Guide  to  Virtue,  being  a  Compendium  of  Moral  Philosophy  with 
Practical  Rules  for  the  Conduct  of  Life."  The  books  possess  much  merit,  and 
we  doubt  not  that  they  will  eventually  obtain  general  circulation  and  use. 


From  the  Highland  Messenger,  Asheville,  N.  C. 

We  have  received  from  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  of  Philadelphia, 
copies  of  their  series  of  Common  School  Readers,  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4.  They  have 
been  recently  published,  and  we  have  no  hesitancy  in  recommending  them  to  pa- 
rents and  teachers,  on  account  of  their  great  moral  excellence,  as  well  as  their  per- 
fect adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the  community,  as  a  complete  and  thorough  system 
of  instruction  in  reading. 


8  ORIGQ  &  ELLIOT'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  READERS. 

From  the  Peoria  (III.}  Register. 

Through  the  politeness  of  Andrew  Gray,  Esq.,  who  has  just  returned  from  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  we  have  been  presented  with  a  copy  of  Grigg  &  Elliot's  new 
series  of  Common  School  Readers,  intended  for  the  instruction  of  children,  and 
upon  a  careful  examination  of  them,  we  feel  justified  in  saying  that  a  better  series 
of  school  books  cannot  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  rising  generation. 


RUSCHENBERGER'S  FIRST  BOOKS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY, 
For  Schools,  Colleges  and  Families. 

1.  Elements  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 

2.  Elements  of  Mammalogy,  the  Natural  History  of  Quadrupeds, 

3.  Elements  of  Ornithology,  the  Natural  History  of  Birds, 

4.  Elements  of  Herpetology  and  Ichthyology,  the  Natural  History  of 
Reptiles  and  Fishes, 

6.  Elements  of  Conchology,  the  Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mol- 
lusca, 

6.  Elements  of  Entomology,  the  Natural  History  of  Insects, 

7.  Elements  of  Botany,  the  Natural  History  of  plants, 

8.  Elements  of  Geology,  the  Natural  History  of  the  Earth's  Structure. 


To  Teachers,  Principals  and  Controllers  of  Schools,  Academies 
and  Colleges. 

We  take  the  liberty  of  calling  your  attention  to  a  Series  of  Books  on  the  subject  of  Natural  Hia- 
tory,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  our  country,  is  second  to  no  branch 
of  knowledge  now  taught  in  schools.  We  ask  your  attention  to  these  books,  because  we  believe  them 
to  be  superior  to  any  works  of  the  kind  ever  offered  to  the  American  public.  They  are  small  in  size, 
extremely  cheap,  as  accurate  in  scientific  arrangement  as  the  most  voluminous  works  on  similar  sub- 
jects, and  in  every  respect,  such  as  parents  and  teachers  would  wish  to  place  in  the  hands  of  their 
children.  Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servants, 

GRIGG  &  ELLIOT. 

These  books  have  been  introduced  into  the  Public  Schools  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  and  no  doubt 
will,  ere  long,  be  introduced  into  all  the  public  schools  of  our  other  States. 

"  We  regard  the  introduction  of  these  works  into  our  public  schools,  among  the  highest  compliments 
they  have  received  ;  for  we  feel  sure  that  the  gentlemen  who  constitute  the  committee  for  selecting 
books,  possess  too  much  discernment  and  general  knowledge,  to  pass  favourably  upon  works  of  infe- 
rior pretensions.  The  following  gentlemen  composed  the  Committee  for  selecting  books  for  the  use  of 
Public  Schools."  GEORGE  M.  WHARTON.  Esq. 

THOMAS  H.  FORSYTH.  Esq. 
GEORGE  EMLEN,  Jr.,  Esq. 
^_  FRANCIS  LYONS,  Esq. 

JOHN  C.  SMITH.  Esq. 
Philadelphia.  ^^^~^~^~~^~~~~~~~~ 

In  addition  to  numerous  flattering  notices  of  the  American  Press,  the  publishers  have  received  up- 
wards of  one  hundred  recommendations  from  the  most  prominent  professors  and  distinguished  teachers 
of  our  country,  to  the  superior  claims  of  these  works,  and  urging  their  introduction  as  Class  Books 
into  all  the  Schools,  Academies,  &c.,  throughout  the  United  States. 

These  Books  can  be  procured  from  Country  Merchants  and 
Booksellers  generally  throughout  the  United  States. 


NEW  AND  IMPORTANT 


SCHOOL   BOOKS,-; 

— -^ 
TO  TEACHERS,  PRINCIPALS  AND  CONTROLLERS 

OF 

SCHOOLS,  ACADEMIES  AND  COLLEGES. 


SMILEY'S  ARITHMETICAL  RULES  AND  TABLES 
FOR  YOUNG  BEGINNERS. 

This  is  the  best  work  of  the  kind  now  in  print ;  but  teachers  are  particu- 
larly requested  to  examine  for  themselves. 

SMILEY'S  ARITHMETIC,  or  the  New  Federal  Calculator, 
in  dollars  and  cents.  This  work  contains,  among  other  important  im- 
provements, Questions  on  the  Rules  and  Theory  of  Arithmetic,  which  are 
considered  by  teachers  generally,  very  conducive  to  the  improvement  of 
the  pupil. 

Although  a  prejudice  exists  among  some  teachers  in  favour  of  the  old 
works  on  arithmetic,  yet  the  very  liberal  patronage  which  this  work  has 
received,  must  be  considered  as  decisive  evidence  of  the  great  estimation 
in  which  it  is  held  by  most  of  the  instructors  of  youth.  Upwards  of  300,- 
000  copies  have  been  printed  and  sold.  The  sums  being  altogether  in  dol- 
lars and  cents,  gives  it  a  decided  preference  over  any  other  arithmetic  in 
use.  The  most  distinguished  teachers  of  our  city  and  country  pronounce 
it  superior  to  any  other  like  work ;  therefore  the  publisher  sincerely  hopes 
this  useful  improvement  will  overcome  the  prejudice  that  many  teachers 
have  to  introducing  new  works,  particularly  those  preceptors  who  wish  to 
discharge  their  duty  faithfully  to  parent  and  child. 

The  editors  of  the  New  York  Telegraph,  speaking  of  Smiley's  Arithme- 
1 


2  GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

tic,  observe,  "  We  do  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  it  an  improvement  upon 
every  work  of  that  kind  previously  before  the  public,  and  as  such  recom- 
mend its  adoption  in  all  our  schools  and  academies." 

A  KEY  TO  THE  ABOVE  ARITHMETIC ;  in  which  aU 
the  examples  necessary  for  a  learner  are  wrought  at  large,  and  also  solu- 
tions given  of  all  the  various  rules.  Designed  principally  to  facilitate  the 
labour  of  teachers,  and  assist  such  as  have  not  the  opportunity  of  a  tutor's 
aid.  By  T.  T.  Smiley,  author  of  the  New  Federal  Calculator,  &c.  &c. 

CONVERSATIONS  ON  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY;  in 

which  the  Elements  of  that  Science  are  familiarly  explained.  Illustrated 
with  plates.  By  the  author  of"  Conversations  on  Chemistry,"  &c.  With 
considerable  additions,  corrections,  and  improvements  in  the  body  of  the 
work,  appropriate  Questions,  and  a  Glossary.  By  Dr.  Thomas  P.  Jones. 

CONVERSATIONS  ON  CHEMISTRY;  in  which  the  Ele- 
ments of  that  Science  are  familiarly  explained  and  illustrated  by  Experi- 
ments and  Engravings  on  wood.  From  the  last  London  edition.  In  which 
all  the  late  Discoveries  and  Improvements  are  brought  up  to  the  present 
time,  by  Dr.  Thomas  P.  Jones. 

The  learned  and  distinguished  Professors  Silliman  and  Bigelow,  speak- 
ing of  these  works,  observe: — "They  are  satisfied  that  the  Works  contain 
the  fundamental  principles,  and  truths  of  the  Sciences,  expressed  in  a  clear, 
intelligible,  and  interesting  manner,  and  that  the  present  editions  are  de- 
cidedly more  valuable  than  any  preceding  ones.  The  high  character  of 
the  author,  as  a  lecturer,  and  a  man  of  science,  will,  we  doubt  not,  secure 
for  these  Works  the  good  opinion  of  the  public,  and  cause  their  extensive 
adoption  among  Seminaries  and  Students." 

TEACHERS  in  ordering  would  do  well  to  say  "Jones'  Improved  Editions." 

THE  BEAUTIES  OF  HISTORY,  or  Examples  of  the 
Opposite  Effects  of  Virtue  and  Vice,  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Families, 
with  Questions  for  the  Examination  of  Students.  1  vol.  12mo.,  with  plates. 

This  work  is  introduced  into  our  High  School.  It  is  particularly  adapted 
for  a  Class  Book  in  all  our  male  and  female  Seminaries,  &c. 

"  We  have  received  from  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  a  very 
neat  duodecimo  volume,  entitled  'The  Beauties  of  History;  or,  Examples 
of  the  opposite  effects  of  Virtue  and  Vice,  drawn  from  real  life.'  After  a 
careful  examination  of  this  book,  we  can  conscientiously  recommend  it  to 
parents  and  teachers  as  a  most  meritorious  performance.  There  are  here 
collected,  within  a  narrow  compass,  the  most  striking  examples  of  indivi- 
dual virtue  and  vice  which  are  spread  forth  on  the  pages  of  history,  or  are 


GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  SCHOOL  BOOKS.  3 

recorded  in  personal  biography.  The  noblest  precepts  are  recommended 
.or  the  guidance  of  youth;  and  in  the  most  impressive  manner  is  he  taught 
to  conquer  the  degrading  impulses  which  lower  the  standard  of  the  human 
character.  We  have  not  lately  met  with  a  volume  which,  in  design  and 
execution,  seemed  so  acceptable  as  this.  The  book,  moreover,  is  hand- 
somely got  up,  and  illustrated  with  wood  engravings." 

GRIMSHAWS  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Recently  brought  up  by  the  author  to  the  present  time. 

Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History ;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Private  Families. 

GRIMSHAWS  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  Recently 
brought  up  by  the  author  to  the  present  time. 

Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Private  Families. 

GRIMSHAWS  IMPROVED  EDITION  OF  GOLDSMITH'S 
HISTORY  OF  GREECE,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Proper 
Names  contained  in  the  work,  and  the  Prosodial  Accents,  in  conformity 
with  the  pronunciation  of  Lempriere. 

Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History ;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Private  Families. 

GRIMSHAWS  IMPROVED  EDITION  OF  GOLDSMITH'S 
HISTORY  OF  ROME,  revised  and  corrected,  and  a  Vocabulary 
of  Proper  Names  appended,  with  Prosodial  Marks  to  assist  in  their  pro- 
nunciation. . 

Also,  Questions  adapted  to  the  above  History;  and  a  Key,  adapted  to  the 
Questions,  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Private  Families. 

GRIMSHAWS  HISTORY  OF  FRANCE,  with  Key  and 
Questions. 

GRIMSHAWS  HISTORY  AND  LIFE  OF  NAPOLEON. 

The  editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  speaking?of  these"'Histories, 
observes,  that — "Among  the  Elementary^Books  of  American  History,  we 
do  not  remember  to  'have  seen  any  one  more^deserving  approbation  than 
Mr.  Grimshaw's  History  of  the  United  States.  Ituis  a  small  volume,  and  a 
great  deal  of  matter  is  brought  into  a  narrow  space; — but  the  author  has 
succeeded  so  well  in  the  construction  of  his  periods,  and  the  arrangement 
of  his  materials,  that  perspicuity  is  rarely  sacrificed  to  brevity. 


4  GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

"The  chain  of  narrative  is  skilfully  preserved,  and  the  author's  reflec- 
tions are  frequently  such  as  make  the  facts  more  impressive,  and  lead  the 
youthful  mind  to  observe  causes  and  consequences  which  might  otherwise 
have  been  overlooked.  As  a  school  book  it  may  justly  be  recommended. 

"What  has  been  said  of  this  volume  will  apply  generally  to  his  other 
historical  works.  They  are  each  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the  one  jus 
noticed,  and  designed  for  the  same  object,  that  is,  the  use  of  classes  in 
schools. 

"  The  History  of  England  is  an  original  composition ;  but  the  Grecian 
and  Roman  Histories  are  Goldsmith's,  improved  by  Mr.  Grimshaw,  in 
which  he  has  corrected  the  typographical  errors,  with  which  the  later  edi- 
tions of  Goldsmith's  Abridgments  so  much  abound;  and  removed  any 
grossness  in  language,  which,  in  some  few  instances,  render  these  valua- 
ble compends  less  useful  in  the  schools  to  which  youth  of  both  sexes  resort. 
He  has  also  added  a  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names,  accentuated,  in  order 
to  show  their  right  pronunciation,  which  is  a  valuable  appendage  to  the 
History. 

"All  these  books  are  accompanied  with  very  full  and  well-digested 
Tables  of  Questions,  for  the  benefit  of  Pupils,  and  also  with  Keys  to  the 
same,  for  the  convenience  of  Teachers." 

[Teachers  generally,  who  have  examined  Mr.  Grimshaw's  Histories  of 
the  United  States  and  England,  and  Improved  Editions  of  Goldsmith's 
Greece  and  Rome,  have  given  them  a  decided  preference  to  any  other 
Histories  in  use  as  School  Books — and  any  person  who  will  examine  them, 
will  find  about  one  thousand  errors  in  each  corrected;  and  teachers  order- 
ing those  works  will  do  well  to  say  "  Grimshaw's  Improved  Editions."] 

GRIMSHAW'S  LADIES'  LEXICON,  and  Parlour  Com- 
panion ;  containing  nearly  every  word  in  the  English  language,  and  ex- 
hibiting the  plurals  of  nouns  and  the  participles  of  verbs,  being  also 
particularly  adapted  to  the  use  of  Academies  and  Schools.  By  William 
Grimshaw,  Esq.,  author  of  the  Gentlemen's  Lexicon,  &c. 

THE  GENTLEMEN'S  LEXICON,  or  Pocket  Dictionary; 

containing  nearly  every  word  in  the  English  language,  and  exhibiting  the 
plurals  of  nouns  and  the  participles  of  verbs;  being  also  particularly 
idapted  to  the  use  of  Academies  and  Schools.  By  William  Grimshaw, 
author  of  the  Ladies'  Lexicon,  History  of  England,  of  the  United  States,  &c. 
"The  public  are  again  indebted  to  the  talents  of  Mr.  Grimshaw,  for  the 
very  useful  books  which  he  has  called  '  The  Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's 
Lexicon.'  The  peculiarity  and  advantages  of  these  works  may  be  col- 
lected from  the  following  portion  of  the  preface.  *  They  differ  from  all 


GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  SCHOOL  BOOKS.  5 

preceding  works  of  the  kind  in  this,  that  they  exhibit  the  plurals  of  all 
nouns  which  are  not  formed  by  the  mere  addition  of  the  letter  S,  and  also 
the  participles  of  every  verb  now  generally  used,  and  unless  accompanied 
by  a  particular  caution.  No  word  has  been  admitted  which  is  not  now  of 
polite  or  popular  use,  and  no  word  has  been  excluded  which  is  required 
either  in  epistolary  composition  or  conversation.'" 

In  the  Nashville  Republican,  we  observe  the  following  notice  of  this  very 
useful  book : — 

"  In  recommending  the  '  Ladies'  Lexicon,'  therefore,  to  all  our  readers, 
male  and  female,  who  have  ever  experienced  the  difficulties  which  it  is  so 
admirably  calculated  to  remedy,  we  but  do  an  ordinary  «jct  of  justice  to  the 
author  and  publisher.  We  consider  the  'Ladies'  Lexicon,'  and  recom- 
mend it  to  our  readers,  as  a  work  that  possesses  superior  claims  on  their 
attention  and  patronage." 

In  giving  the  above  extracts,  we  take  occasion  to  say,  that  teachers  will 
find  the  "Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's  Lexicons"  works  admirably  adapted  to 
take  the  place,  with  advantage  to  their  pupils,  of  the  different  works  re- 
cently put  into  their  hands  under  the  name  of  Expositors,  &c. 

0^  The  above  work  has  been  introduced  as  a  Class  Book  into  many  of 
our  Academies  and  Schools  with  great  approbation. 

BIGLAND'S  NATURAL  HISTORY  of  Animals,  Birds, 
Fishes,  Reptiles  and  Insects,  illustrated  with  numerous  and  beautiful  en- 
gravings. By  John  Bigland,  author  of  a  "View  of  the  World,"  "Letters 
on  Universal  History,"  &c.  Complete  in  1  vol.  12mo. 

(J^T  This  work  is  particularly  adapted  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Fami- 
lies, forming  the  most  elegantly  written  and  complete  work  on  the  subject 
of  Natural  History  ever  published,  and  is  worthy  of  the  special  attention 
of  the  Teachers  of  all  our  Schools  and  Academies. 

BIGLAND'S  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  ANIMALS,  illus- 
trated with  12  beautifully  coloured  engravings. 

BIGLAND'S  HISTORY  OF  BIRDS,  illustrated  with  12 
beautifully  coloured  engravings. 

PERSIA.  A  DESCRIPTION  OF.  By  Shoberl,  with  12 
coloured  plates. 

These  works  are  got  up  in  a  very  superior  style,  and  well  deserve  an 
introduction  to  the  shelves  of  every  family  library,  as  they  are  very  inte- 
resting, and  particularly  adapted  to  the  juvenile  class  of  readers. 


6  GRIGG  &  ELLIOT'S  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

CONVERSATIONS  ON  ITALY,  in  English  and  French, 
designed  for  the  use  of  Schools,  Academies,  &c.  By  Miss  Julia  S.  Hawkes, 
in  1  vol.  12mo. 

CC/-  This  work  is  spoken  very  highly  of  by  Miss  C.  Beecher,  (who  form- 
erly taught  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  who  has  done  as  much  for  the  elevation 
of  the  female  character,  and  for  education  generally,  as  any  other  lady  in 
this  country,)  and  has  received  the  highest  recommendation  from  our  most 
distinguished  Teachers,  and  the  American  press. 

MURRAY'S  EXERCISES,  adapted  to  his  Grammar.  Grigg 
and  Elliot's  stereotype  edition. 

MURRAY'S  KEY  TO  THE  EXERCISES.  Grigg  and 
Elliot's  stereotype  edition. 

HORACE  DELPHINI.  Grigg  and  Elliot's  new  corrected 
stereotype  edition. 

The  Delphin  Classics  (of  which  Horace  Delphini  and  Virgil  Delphini 
are  two,)  were  prepared  at  the  express  command  of  the  King  of  France, 
for  the  education  of  his  son,  the  Dauphin.  They  are  not  the  result  of  the 
labours  of  a  single  man,  but  of  many  of  the  most  learned  men  of  whom 
France  could  boast;  and  consequently  they  ought, by  every  thinking  mind, 
to  be  considered  as  near  perfection  as  it  is  possible  to  approach.  They 
are  illustrated  in  the  margin  by  an  ordo,  and  at  the  foot  of  each  page  by 
most  copious  and  learned  notes  in  the  Latin  language  ;  and  they  are  sub- 
mitted to  the  judgment  of  every  teacher. 

VIRGIL  DELPHINI.  Grigg  and  Elliot's  new  corrected 
stereotype  edition. 

For  remarks  respecting  this  work  and  the  Delphin  Classics  generally, 
^see  note  to  "  Horace  Delphini,"  immediately  above. 

HUTCHINSON'S  XENOPHON,  with  notes,  and  a  Latin 
translation  under  the  Greek  in  each  page,  by  Thomas  Hutchinson,  A.  M. 

This  edition  of  the  above  valuable  work  is  printed  on  a  large  and  bold 
Greek  type;  and  has,  in  order  to  insure  its  accuracy,  been  stereotyped. 
The  classical  elegance  and  well-known  celebrity  of  Xenophon  demand  of 
every  teacher,  that  he  should  place  it  unmutilated  and  complete  in  the 
hands  of  his  scholars,  instead  of  being  content  with  the  meagre  extracts 
which  are  made  from  it  in  many  of  the  Greek  compilations  for  schools  of 
the  day. 


VALUABLE  WOKKS 

FOR 

PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  LIBRARIES, 
PUBLISHED  BY  GRIGG  *  ELLIOT, 

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RUSCHENBERGER'S    SERIES. 

FIRST  BOOKS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

ELEMENTS  OE  BOTANY; 

PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES, 

BY 

W.  S.  W.  ^USCHENBERGER,  M.D. 

SURGEON  IN  THE  U.  S.  NAVY  J    FELLOW  OF  THE  COLLEGE   OF   PHYSICIANS  }    HON. 

MEMBER    OF   THE   PHILADELPHIA    MEDICAL   SOCIETY;    MEMBER    OF    THE 

ACADEMY  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCES  OF  PHILADELPHIA,  ETC.,  ETC. 

FROM  THE  TEXT    OF 

MILNE  EDWARDS  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE, 

PROFESSORS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  IN  THE  COLLEGES 
OF  HENRI  IV.,  AND  CHARLEMAGNE. 


WITH    PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
GRIGG  &  ELLIOT, 

NO.  9  NORTH   FOURTH   STREET 


EDUCATION 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1844,  by 
W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D., 

in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


J.  Fagan,  Stereotyper. 

T.  K.  &  P.  O.  Collins,  Printers. 

(4) 


3 

EDUG 


PREFACE. 


The  SEVENTH  in  the  Series  of  FIRST  BOOKS  OP  NATURAL 
HISTORY,  comprises  the  Elements  of  Botany. 

This  subject  is  deeply  interesting,  useful,  and  consequently 
popular,  which  may  be  readily  inferred  from  the  great  number 
of  books  published  on  this  branch  of  Natural  Science.  Whether 
the  little  volume  now  presented  will  find  favour  with  the  public, 
among  the  many  that  have  been  well  received,  time  will  show.  It 
is  brief,  and  I  have  attempted  to  make  it  clear  to  beginners. 
The  explanations  and  etymologies  of  technical  words  are  given 
as  they  occur,  either  in  the  text,  or  in  foot  notes,  and  in  many, 
if  not  in  all  cases,  the  pronunciation  of  these  words  has  been 
designated  by  accents.  When  it  occurs,  the  Greek  omega  has 
been  marked  thus  (6),  and  italics  have  been  substituted  for 
Greek  characters,  because,  it  is  presumed,  many  who  may  use 
this  volume  are  unacquainted  with  the  dead  languages.  An  ample 
glossary  has  also  been  appended. 

Besides  the  work  of  Messrs.  Edwards  and  Comte,  which  forms 
the  skeleton  of  this,  I  have  freely  consulted  the  writings  of 
Lindley,  Loudon,  Smith,  Gray,  Reed,  and  others,  and  as  freely 
appropriated  whatever  seemed  useful  to  us  in  carrying  out  the 
design  of  forming  an  accurate,  brief,  and  simple  treatise  on  the 
Elements  of  Botany,  suitable  for  beginners,  whether  young  or 

old>    i»       M788534 


PREFACE. 


The  numerous  illustrations,  engraved  by  Mr.  G.  Thomas  (65 
South  Third  Street,  Philadelphia),  have  been  well  executed,  and 
do  credit  to  the  artist. 

The  present  edition  has  been  carefully  revised,  and  several 
new  figures  have  been  added;  this  little  volume  now  contains 
one  hundred  and  sixty-four  illustrations. 

W.  S.  W.  R. 

U.  S.  Naval  Hospital,  New  York.  ) 
July,  1644.  ( 


CONTENTS 


, 

OF 


BOTANY. 


LESSON  I. 

Botany.  —  Definition  of  Plants  —  Structure  of  Plants  —  Nomenclature  of 
Organs. 

LESSON  II. 

Functions  of  Nutrition.—  Absorption  and  Ascent  of  Sap  —  Roots;  their 
Structure  and  Forms  —  Stem  ;  its  Divisions,  Varieties,  &c.  —  Structure  of 
the  Stem,  in  Ex'ogens—  Medullary  Canal—  Pith  —  Medullary  Sheath— 
Wood  —  Medullary  Rays  —  Bark  —  Epider'mis  —  Cork  —  Structure  of  tho 
Stem  in  En'dogens. 

LESSON  III. 

Mechanism  of  the  Absorption  and  Ascent  of  the  Sap.  —  Ascending  Sap- 
Exhalation  —  Respiration  —  Leaves  —  Parts  of  Leaves;  their  Structure, 
Shape,  and  Position  —  Stipules  —  Tendrils  —  Examples  of  the  Forms  of 
simple  and  compound  Leaves  —  Exhalation  —  Respiration  —  Distribution 
of  the  nutritive  Juices  —  Descending  Sap  —  Secretions  —  Excretions- 
Succession  of  Crops  —  Proper  Juices  —  Lignin  —  Fecula  —  Growth  of 
Plants—  Grafting—  Effects  of  the  Seasons  on  the  Nutrition  of  Plants— 
The  Age  of  Plants. 

LESSON  IV. 

Generation  of  Plants.  —  Multiplication  of  Plants  by  Division  —  Formation 
of  adventitious  Roots  —  Multiplication  of  Plants  by  Grafting  ;  by  Tuber- 
cles— Phanero'gamous  and  Crypto'gamous  Plants  defined—  Structure 
of  Flowers  —  Peduncle  —  Pedicil  —  Floral  Leaf—  Bract  —  Involucre  —  Spathe 
—  Glume  —  Torus  —  Receptacle  —  Inflorescence  —  Perianth  —  Calyx  — 
Corolla  —  Petals  —  Forms  of  the  Corolla  —  Nectary  —  ^Estivation  —  Essen. 
tial  Parts  of  Flowers—  Stamens—  Anther—  Pollen—  Pistil—  Carpel— 
Ovary, 

(7) 


viii  CONTENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

LESSON  V. 

Development  and  Functions  of  Flowers. — Flora's  Calendar — Flora's  Clock 
—Fertilization  of  Flowers — Fruit — Epi-carp — Meso-carp— Endo-carp— 
Carpels — Classification  of  Fruits — Seeds  ;  their  Structure — Embryo— 
Coty'ledons — Germination. 

LESSON  VI. 

Classification  of  Plants.— Natural  and  Artificial  Methods— Artificial  Sys- 
tem of  Linnaeus — The  Natural  Method  of  Jussieu. 

Crypto'gamous  Plants. — Lichens,  Fungi,  Agarics,  Truffle,  Algae,  Mosses, 
Ferns. 

Phanero'gamous  Plants. — Monocoty'ledons — Grasses — Wheat,  Rye,  Barley, 
Malt,  Oats,  Rice,  Maize,  Sugar-cane,  Sugar,  Sugar-candy — Palms- 
Narcissus — Dicoty'ledons — A'petalous  Dicoty'ledons — Monope'talous  Di- 
coty'ledons— Potato,  Tobacco,  Belladonna,  Olive,  Sage,  Coffee — Polype'- 
talous  Dicoty'ledons — Hemlock — Mallow,  Cotton,  Flax,  Orange,  Tea, 
Vine,  Wine,  Poppy,  Sensitive  Plant,  Apple,  Pear,  Plum,  Cherry,  Apricot, 
Peach,  Strawberry,  &c.— Dicli'nero— Hop,  Hemp,  Elm,  Bread-fruit,  Oak, 
Chestnut,  Ash,  Pine— Of  the  Uses  of  Plants— Examples  of  Ornamental 
Plants. 

GLOSSARY. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY! 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PLANTS 


LESSON  I. 

BOTANY. — Definition  of  Plants — Structure  of  Plants— Nomen- 
clature of  Organs. 

1.  Botany  (formed  from  the  Greek  word  botane,  a  plant)  is 
that  division  of  Natural  History  which  treats  of  vegetables. 

2.  The   science   of  Botany  is   divided   into  three  branches  : 
namely,   the   Anatomy  of  Plants,   Vegetable   Physiology,   and 
Descriptive  Botany,  which   last  comprises  the  classification  of 
plants  and  their  especial  history. 

3.  Botany,  therefore,  does  not  consist,  as  is  commonly  ima- 
gined by  the  ignorant,  in  merely  "  getting  by  heart"  a  great 
number  of  names  of  plants,  and  of  being  able  to  apply  their 
names  to  the  objects  to  which  they  belong ;  but  in  a  knowledge 
of  the  plants  themselves,  of  their  organization,  their  growth,  their 
manner  of  living,  their  properties,  and  the  relations  they  bear  to 
each  other,  as  well  as  the  characters  by  which  they  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other. 

4.  Dejinition   of  Plants.  —  Plants  are  beings  organized  for 
living ;  but  they  are  not  endowed,  like  animals,  with  the  faculties 
of  sensation  and  of  performing  voluntary  motion. 

5.  Like  animals,  these  beings  are  readily  distinguished  from 
inorganic  bodies  by  their  mode  of  structure,  by  their  nutritive 
function,  through  the  means  of  which  their  substance  is  renewed 
and  augmented,  by  their  origin,  and  by  the  limited  duration  of 
their  existence. 

6.  They  differ  from  animals  not  only  in  being  destitute  of  the 
functions  of  relation,  but  also  in  many  other  respects.     Almost 
all  vegetables  live  fixed  in  the  soil ;  they  absorb,  from  without, 
nutritive  matters  which  they  assimilate,  without   previously  di- 

1.  What  is  Botany? 

2.  How  is  the  science  of  Botany  divided  ? 

3.  What  is  to  be  learned  by  studying  Botany  ? 

4.  What  are  plants  ? 

5.  How  are  plants  distinguished  from  inorganic  bodies  ? 

6.  How  do  plants  differ  from  animals  ? 

(9) 


10  SENSIBILITY  OF  PLANTS. 


gesting  them,  and  they  have  nothing  which  resembles  a  stomach ; 
by  the  act  of  respiration,  they  possess  themselves  of  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  air,  and  exhale  the  oxygen. 

7.  We  have  said  that  vegetables  are  destitute  of  the  faculty  of 
sensation,  and  the  faculty  of  performing  voluntary  motion  :  this 
is  very  evident  in  an  immense  majority  of  instances ;  but 
there  are  some  plants  which,  at  first  sight,  seem  to  form  an  ex- 
ception to  this  rule.  For  example,  the  branches  and  leaves  of 
all  plants  are  directed  to  that  side  from  which  they  receive  the 
light  and  air.  Certain  plants  on  the  approach  of  night,  or  the 
morning  dawn,  close  their  leaves  or  flowers  :  and  there  are  some 
that  contract  themselves  in  this  manner  when  they  are  touched 
by  any  foreign  body.  The  small  shrub  called  the  Sensitive 
Plant  exhibits  this  phenomenon  in  a  very  remarkable  manner : 
and  a  plant  of  certain 
Carolina  marshes,  Venus's 
Fly-trap,  —  Dionma  mus~ 
cipula  (jig.  1) — performs 
these  motions  most  singu- 
larly ;  the  leaves,  which 
are  formed  of  two  lobes, 
are  so  irritable  that  they 
close  on  the  slightest  touch ; 
when  an  insect  alights 
upon  the  internal  face  of 
one  of  them,  the  two  lobes 
immediately  approximate 
each  other,  and  the  ani- 
mal, caught  upon  the 
thorns  with  which  these 
lobes  are  armed,  dies  in 
this  species  of  natural 
snare.  The  Sundew, — 
Drosera, — the  white  flow- 
ers of  which  often  deck 
the  pools  in  France,  are 
somewhat  analogous,  for 

the    hairs    which    fringe  FiS- L— VENUS'S  FLY-TRAP. 

their  broad  round  leaves,  lie  down  the  moment  they  are  irritated 
by  the  contact  of  a  foreign  body. 

8.  But  these  phenomena  differ  essentially  from  the  voluntary 
movements  of  animals  ;  there  is  no  proof  that  the  plants  we  have 


7.  Do  plants  feel  ?     Are  they  capable  of  voluntary  motion  ? 

8.  Is  there  any  positive  proof  that  vegetables  feel,  or  move  of  their  own 
will? 


STRUCTURE  OF  PLANTS.  11 

just  mentioned  experience  sensations,  nor  that  the  motions  per- 
formed by  them  are  directed  by  will :  sometimes  these  move- 
ments result  from  the  action  of  heat  or  humidity  upon  certain 
parts  of  their  tissues,  and  at  other  times  they  can  only  be  com- 
pared to  the  automatic  movements,  which  are  readily  brought 
about  by  means  of  electricity  or  galvanism,  in  animals  that  have 
been  recently  killed  and  deprived  of  the  functions  of  relation. 

Of  the  Structure  of  Plants  in  General. 

9.  Although  plants  differ  very  widely  from  each  other  in  their 
external  forms,  they  closely  resemble  each  other  in  the  materials 
of  which  their  organs  are  composed  :  if  we  examine  the  internal 
structure  of  plants  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  we  find  they  con- 
sist  entirely  of  cellular  tissue  alone,  or  at  most  of  cellular  tissue 
united  to  vessels. 

10.  Plants  that  are  composed  entirely  of  cellular  tissue  are 
called  cellular  plants,  and   those  formed  of  cellular  tissue  and 
vessels  are  named  vascular  plants. 

Of  Cellular  Tissue. 

11.  The  cellular  or  utricular  tissue  of  vege- 
tables consists  of  a  multitude  of  vesicles  (minute 
cells)    filled    with  a  liquid    or  -other   substance; 
sometimes  these  little  bladders  are  rounded  and 
loosely  attached   to  each  other   (fig.  2);  but  in 
general  they  are  so  strongly  pressed  against  each  Fl8- 
other  that  they  are  flattened  at  the  points  where          VESICLES. 

they  touch,  and  take  the  form  of  polygons  (from 
the  Greek,  polus,  many,  and  gone,  sides,  jigs.  3 
and  6,  g,  c) ;  at  the  same  time  their  union  be- 
comes so  intimate  that  it  is  difficult  to  separate 
them,  and  the  cells  formed  by  their  cavities  seem 
to  be  separated  only  by  simple  partitions,  as  cavi- 
ties would  be  if  hollowed  out  of  a  continuous  or 
solid  mass,  like  the  cells  of  a  honey-comb,  for  example. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  2. — Utricula  or  cells  of  the  cellular  tissue,  which 
have  preserved  their  primitive  form,  magnified. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  3. — The  same  cells  which  have  become  poly'gonal 
in  consequence  of  pressing  against  each  other. 


9.  Do  plants  differ  from  each  other  in  their  internal  structure  as  much  as 
they  do  in  their  external  form  ? 

10.  What  are  cellular  plants  ?     What  are  vascular  plants  ? 

11.  Of  what  does  the  cellular  tissue  of  plants  consist?     Are  all  cells  of 
the  same  form  ? 

' 


12 


CELLS— VESSELS. 


Fig.  4. 

VESICLES. 


12.  The   form  of  these   cells  varies    very  much : 
sometimes  they  are  spherical  or  octa'gonal,  at  other 
times   flat   or  very   much  elongated,  and  tapered    at 
their  extremities  like  spindles  (fg-  4) ;  in  the  latter 
case   they   are  often   designated   under  the   name  of 
clostres.     Their  surface  frequently  presents   rays  or 
points  which  resemble  pores,  but  in  reality  these  vesi- 
cles are  completely  closed,  and  are  without  openings 
or  orifices ;   their  parietes   are  naturally  transparent, 
and  almost  colourless ;  but  ordinarily  these  cells  con- 
tain  granules  which   are  deposited  on  their   internal 
surface,  and,  when  these   corpuscles  (little    bodies)  are   green, 
brown,  red,  &c.,  their  parietes  appear  to  be  coloured  in  the  same 
manner.     The  colour  of  different  parts  of  plants  depends  upon 
this  circumstance. 

13.  The  cellules  (little  cells)  of  the  cellular  tissue  often  have 
between  them  empty  spaces  of  more  or  less  extent,  called  inter- 
cellular mcdtvs,  or   inter-cellular  pores,    or  passages:    these 
cavities,  which  are  of  irregular  form,  are  very  important,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  sequel. 

Of  Vessels. 

14.  The  vessels  of  plants  are  generally  cylindrical 
tubes,  which    sometimes    resemble   excessively  elon- 
gated cells  (fg.  5).     They  differ*very  much  in  their 
structure,  and  they  are  divided  into  trachese,  false  tra- 
cheae, punctuated  or  dotted  vessels,  moniliform  vessels, 
reticular  vessels,  mixed  vessels  and  proper  vessels. 

15.  Trachea.     We  give  the  name  of  trachea?  to 

tubes,  which  closely  resemble  the 
trachea?  of  insects,  for,  like  them, 
they    are    formed    of    a    thread 
spirally  folded  (Jig.  6).     This  thread,  which 
.,.,,,       ,        is  silvery   white,  is  very  elastic  and  easily 
a    i  cd  e   f      g        unrolled;  and  if  we  carefully  break  a  leaf 
Fig.  6. — TRACHEA.       of  a  rose  tree,  or  dog- wood,  for  example,  we 

Explanation  of  Fig.  4. — Clostres  or  fusiform  cells  of  wood,  magnified. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  5. — A  punctuated  or  dotted  vessel,  magnified. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  6. — Vertical  section  of  a  stem,  showing  the  cellular 
tissue  of  which  the  epidermis  is  composed  (a) ;  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
bark  (6) ;  the  clostres  of  the  fibre  of  the  wood  (c) ;  a  punctuated  vessel  (d) ; 
a  rayed  vessel  (e) ;  a  tracheae  (/) ;  and  soft  cellular  tissue  (^). 

12.  What  are  clostres? 

]  3.  What  are  inter-cellular  passages  ? 

14.  How  are  the  vessels  of  plants  divided  ? 

15.  What  are  tra'chese  ?     (Trachete,  the  plural  of  trachea, — pronounced 
Ira'-ke-ah — wind-pipe.) 


Fig.  5. 

VESSEL. 


VESSELS. 


13 


find  the  two  fragments  united  to  each  other  by  filaments,  similar 
to  spider's  web,  which  are,  in  fact,  the  unrolled  tracheae. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  being  formed  of  a  single  spiral  thread, 
these  vessels  are  composed  of  two  or  three  parallel  threads  rolled 
together.  Their  length  is,  in  general,  very  considerable,  and  it 
seems  that  they  terminate  in  a  point  at  each  extremity  ;  they  do 
not  branch  or  ramify  like  blood-vessels  in  animals,  and  ordinarily 
they  are  united  in  bundles. 

16.  The  false  trachea,  which  are   also   called   annular,  or 
radiated   vessels,  are  unramified    lubes,  marked    by  transverse 
parallel  rays  (fig-  6,  e).     When  the  rays  are  very  close  toge- 
ther, these  vessels  resemble  tracheae   very  much,  but  they  are 
not  elastic  and  cannot  be  unrolled. 

17.  The  punctuated  or  dotted  vessels  (fig.  5)  are  cylindrical 
tubes    like   the   preceding,   but   their    parietes   are   dotted    with 
small    opaque   points   arranged    in    parallel   or   oblique   series. 
They  were  formerly  called  porous  vessels,  because  it  was  be- 
lieved that  these  dots  were  holes,  but  we  are  now  assured  that 
they  are  not  pores. 

18.  The  reticular  vessels  are  cylindrical  tubes,  the  surface  of 
which  being  covered  by  oblong  transverse  spots,  gives  them  the 
appearance  of  a  net. 

19.  The  mixed  vessels  are  tubes  which  at  different  points  in 
their  length  seem  to  possess  alternately  the  characters  of  the  three 
kinds  of  vessels  we  have  just  mentioned. 

20.  The  moni'liform,  or  bead-like  vessels,  are 

punctuated  tubes 
which  ramify,  and 
are  contracted  or 
strangulated  at  dif- 
ferent points  (fig-  7). 
Many  botanists  sup- 
pose they  consist  of 
series  of  cells  at- 
tached to  each  other, 
end  to  end. 
Fig.  8.— VESSELS.  21.  The  proper  vessels  (fig.  8, 

Explanation  of  Fig.  7.— Moni'liform  (bead-like)  vessels,  magnified. 

Explanation  of  Fig:  8.— Vertical  section  of  a  stem,  showing  cellular 
tissue  with  elongated  cells  (a) ;  and  the  reservoirs  of  the  peculiar  or  proper 
juices  (J>,  6). 

16.  What  are  false  tra'cheae  ? 

17.  What  are  punctuated  or  dotted  vessels  ? 

18.  What  are  reticular  vessels  ?    (Reticular ;  from  the  Latin,  rete,  a  net.) 

19.  What  are  mixed  vessels  ? 

20.  What  is   meant   by  moniliform   vessels  ?      (Moni'liform,  from   the 
Latin,  monile,  a  necklace,  a  string  of  beads,  and  forma,  form.) 

21.  What  arfe  proper  vessels? 


m 


.-.a 


14  FIBRES.— EPIDERMIS. 

b)  are  cavities  which  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  short  blunt 
tubes,  and  sometimes  they  are  elongated  very  much  ;  they  en- 
close the  particular  juices  of  the  various  species  of  plants. 

22.  Finally,   the   vessels   of  the    latex  are   ramified  canals, 
which  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of  proper  vessels ;  according 
to  some  botanists,  they  are  lined  by  a  proper  membrane,  but  ac- 
cording to  other  observers,  they  have  no  lateral  parietes,  and  are 
merely  inter-cellular  passages  or   meatus.     (Latex  is    a    Latin 
word,  signifying  a  peculiar  fluid,  which  is  usually  turbid,  and 
coloured  red,  white  or  yellow;  often,  however,  colourless.) 

Of  the  Compound  Constituent  Parts  of  Organs. 

23.  The  elementary  parts  of  plants  we  have  just  mentioned 
constitute,  either  alone  or  by  their  union,  the  tissues  and  the  dif- 
ferent organs  which,  in  their  turn,  concur  in  the  formation  of  the 
various  apparatuses  constituting  the  body  of  these  beings.     Such 
are  the  fibres,  the  epidermis,  the  hairs,  the  glands,  &c. 

24.  Fibres. — The  fibres  which  are  often  found  in  the  different 
parts  of  plants,  but  chiefly  in  the  stems,  are  not  composed  of  a 
peculiar  tissue,  but  are  formed  of  vessels  united  in  bundles,  inter- 
mingled with  clostres  or  elongated  cells.     Among  these  vessels, 
we  sometimes  find  tra'cheze,  but  most  of  them  are  punctuated 
vessels.     The  filaments  thus  formed  are  arranged  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  joined  together  by  a  more  or  less  loose  cellular  tissue; 
it  is  therefore  much  easier   to  separate   them   lengthwise   than 
transversely. 

25.  Epidermis  (from  the  Greek  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  skin). 
The   epidermis  or   cuticle 

is  a  thin  membrane  which 

covers  the  external  surface 

of  plants  ;  it   is  especially 

distinct      in     the     young 

stems,     the     leaves      and 

roots ;    it  is  composed  of  k          &  jl 

cellular  tissue,  :the  cells  of 

which  adhere  more  strong-       **•  9-™.cAL  SECTION  or  A  LEAF. 

ly  to  each  other  than  to  the  subjacent  parts,  and  for  this  reason 

Explanation  of  Fig.  9. — Vertical  section  of  a  leaf  magnified ; — a.  the 
epidermis  of  the  upper  surface  ;— b.  the  paren'chyma  formed  of  cellular 
tissue,  in  which  we  observe  inter-cellular  passages  or  mea'tus ; — c,  c.  epi- 
dermis of  the  lower  surface;—*?,  d,  d.  the  stomata  cut  transversely. 

22.  What  are  the  latex  vessels? 

23.  What  elementary  parts  constitute  the  tissue  of  plants? 

24.  What  are  fibres  ? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  epidermis?     WThat  are  sto'mata ?     Where  are 
they 'found? 


HAIRS.— SCURF. 


15 


-ILL/ 


it  is,  in  general,  easily  raised  up  (fig.  9,  a  and  c) :  we  often  re- 
mark in  it  little  openings  called  sto'mata  (from  the  Greek,  stoma, 
mouth),  which  are  not  visible  without  the  assistance  of  a  magni- 
fying-glass  (fig.  10,  6)  ;  the  a 

edges  of  these  pores  are 
formed  by  two  oval  or  glo- 
bular cells  filled  with  green 
globules,  and  their  opening  e 
corresponds  with  the  inter- 
cellular vacuities  or  lacuna? 
(fig.  9,  fe),  the  uses  of  which 
appear  to  be  very  important 
in  the  respiration  of  plants. 
No  sto'mata  are  found  upon 
the  roots ;  many  cellular 
plants,  such  "as  mushrooms  Fi?'  ^.-HORIZONTAL  SECTION  OF  A  LEAF. 

and  mosses,  are  altogether  without  them,  and  they  are  also  want- 
ing in  certain  plants  that  live  in  water. 

.  26.  The  hairs  of  plants  are  external  appendages  formed  of 
elongated  and  projecting  cellules  ;  sometimes  they  are  simple, 
that  is,  composed  of  a  single  cell ;  sometimes  they  are  partitioned, 
that  is,  formed  of  several  cells  arranged  in  a  row,  end  to  end,  and 
at  other  times  they  are  more  or  less  branching  ;  sometimes  they 
lie  upon  glands,  and  serve  as  an  excretory  canal  to  the  caustic 
juices  secreted  by  these  organs. 

Hairs  vary  extremely  in  length,  density,  rigidity,  ancf  other  particulars ; 
on  this  account  they  have  received  the  following  names  : 

Down,  or  pubescence,when  they  form  a  short  soft  layer,  which  only  par- 
tially covers  the  cuticle  or  epidermis. 

Hairiness  (hirsutus),  when  they  are  rather  longer  and  more  rigid. 

Pilosity  (pilosus},  when  they  are  long,  soft,  and  erect. 

Villosity  (villosus),  when  they  are  very  long,  very  soft,  erect,  and  straight. 
Crini  (crinitus)  are  this  variety  in  excess. 

Velvet  (velutinus\  when  they  are  short,  very  dense  and  soft,  but  rather 
rigid,  and  forming  a  surface  like  velvet. 

Cilia;, — eye-lashes  (ciliatus\ — when  long,  and  fbiming  a  fringe  to  the 
margin,  like  an  eye-lash. 

Bristles  (setts, — sctosus),  when  short  and  stiff. 

Stings  (stimuli — slimulans\  when  stiff  and  pungent,  giving  out  an  acrid 
juice  if  touched,  as  in  the  nettle. 

Glandular  hairs  (pili  capilati),  when  they  are  tipped  with  a  glandulai 
exudation. 
'Hooks  (hami,  unci,  rostelld),  when  curved  back  at  the  point. 

Barbs  (glochis— glochidatus\  if  forked  at  the  apex,  both  divisions  of  the 
fork  being  hooked. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  10. — Horizontal  section  of  a  leaf,  magnified  :• 
dermis;—  b.  stomata;— c.  cellular  tissue  of  the  paren'chyma. 

26.  What  are  hairs  ?     Mention  some  of  their  varieties. 


epi- 


16  FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION. 

27.  SCURF  consists  of  thin  flat    membranous    disks,  with    a 
ragged   margin,  formed   of  cellular   tissue   springing  from   the 
epidermis.     It  may  be  considered  as  a  modification  of  hairs ;  for 
it  differs  from  those  bodies  only  in  being  more  compound. 

28.  Prickles  are  conical  hairs  of  large  size,  sharp  pointed,  and 
having  their  tissue  very  hard.     They  differ  from  thorns  in  being 
fixed  to  the  bark ;  the  thorn  is  fixed  to  the  wood. 

29.  Glands.     We  give  the  name  of  glands  to  those  organs 
which  are  destined  for  the  secretion  of  particular  liquids :  they 
are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  plants;  they  are  small  cavities, 
sometimes  formed  of  cellular  tissue  only,  and  sometimes  of  very 
little  cells  mingled   with   a   great   number  of  vessels  ;    in  other 
respects,  they  do  not  appear  to  differ  essentially  from  the  tubiform 
reservoirs  we  have  already  mentioned  under  the  name  of  proper 
vessels. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ORGANS  AND   FUNCTIONS  OF  VE- 
GETABLES. 

30.  The  functions  of  vegetable  are  referred   to  two   classes. 
One  belongs  to  the  individual  life  of  the  vegetable,  that  is,  the 
functions  which  effect  its  nutrition  :  the  other  refers  to  its  multi- 
plication or  the  preservation  of  the  species. 

31.  The  parts  of  plants  that  serve  the  functions  of  nutrition, 
are  the  roots,  the  stem,  and  the  leaves. 

32.  The  parts  which  are  especially  designed  to  secure  the  mul- 
tiplication of  plants  are  the  organs  of  fructification  ;  namely,  the 
flowers  and  fruits. 


LESSON  II. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION. — Absorption  and  Ascent  of  Sap— 
Roots,  their  Structure  and  Forms  —  Stem,  its  Divisions, 
Varieties,  fyc. — Structure  of  the  Stem  in  Ex'ogens — Medul- 
lary Canal — Pith — Medullary  Sheath — Wood — Medullary 
Rays — Bark — Epidermis — Cork — Structure  of  the  Stem  in 
En'dogens. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  NUTRITION. 

1.  The  phenomena  of  the  life  of  nutrition  in  plants  are  referred 
to  five  distinct  functions ;  namely, 

27.  What  is  scurf? 

28.  \Vnat  are  prickles  ?     How  do  they  differ  from  thorns? 

29.  What  are  glands  ? 

30.  How  many  kinds  of  functions  do  plants  possess  ? 

31.  What  parts  serve  the  function  of  nutrition  ? 

32.  What  parts  serve  the  function  of  multiplication,  or  reproduction  of 
plants  ? 

1,  What  are  tne  several  functions  of  the  life  of  nutrition? 


ROOTS.  17 


1st.  The  absorption  of  nutritive  matter: 

2d.  The  transportation  of  the  nutritive  liquid  or  sap  to  the 
organs  of  respiration. 

3d.  The  process  of  respiration  and  elaboration  (or  prepa- 
ration) of  the  nutritive  juices  in  the  interior  of  the  respiratory 
organs. 

4th.  The  transportation  of  the  sap  thus  elaborated  to  different 
parts  of  the  plant,  and  the  deposition  or  assimilation  of  its  ele- 
ments in  its  various  parts. 

5th.  The  secretion  of  peculiar  juices  effected  by  special 
organs. 

2.  The  roots  of  plants  absorb  the  nutritive  matter  necessary 
for  the  maintenance  of  vegetable   life,  and  the  liquids,  thus  in- 
troduced into  the  body  of  the  vegetable,  constitute  what  is  called 
the  ascending  sap.     This  sap  rises  through  the  stem  by  means 
of  particular  canals,  and  in  this  manner  reaches  the  leaves  and 
other  green  parts  of  plants;  there  it  is  modified  by  the  effects  of 
transpiration  and  of  respiration,  and  after  having  been  thus  pre- 
pared, the  sap  descends,  following  a  new  route,  and  is  distributed 
to  those  parts  for  the  growth  of  which  it  is  destined. 

We  will  study  successively  these  phenomena,  and  the  organs 
which  are  the  seat  of  them,  both  in  vascular  and  cellular  plants. 

OF  THE  ABSORPTION  AND  ASCENT  OF  SAP. 

3.  The  absorption  of  nutritive  matters  is  principally  effected  by 
the  extremity  of  the  roots,  and  by  passing  through  these  organs 
and  mounting  along  the  stem,  they  reach  the  leaves,  in  the  sub- 
stance of  which  the  alimentary  juice  is  rendered  fit  for  the  nutri- 
tion of  the   plant.     These  two  phenomena,  the  absorption  and 
ascent  of  the  sap,  are  very  intimately  united ;  and  in  order  to  un- 
derstand them,  we  must,  in  the  first  place,  study  the  structure  of 
.the  two  portions  of  the  plant  which  are  the  seat  of  them,  namely, 
the  roots  and  stem. 

OF  THE  ROOT  OR  DESCENDING  AXIS  (RADIX). 

4.  We  give  the  name  of  root  to  that  inferior  portion  of  plants 
which  serves  to  fix  them  in  the  soil,  and  which,  by  its  growth, 
increases  in  length  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  stem. 

5.  With  the  exception  of  some  plants  that  live  under  water,  or 
float   upon    its  surface,  all  vegetables  are  provided   with  roots, 


2.  What  is  ascending  sap  ?     -What  becomes  of  this  ascending  sap? 

3.  Through  what  part  of  a  plant  is  matter  chiefly  conveyed  for  its  nour- 
ishment. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  root  of  the  plant? 

5.  Are  all  plants  provided  with  roots?    Where  are   the  roots  usually 
found  ?    What  are  adventitious  roots  ? 

2* 


18  STRUCTURE  OF  ROOTS. 

and  these  organs  are  almost  always  buried  in  the  earth.  Some- 
times the  roots  float  freely  in  the  water,  and  there  are  some 
plants  that  insinuate  them  into  cracks  in  walls,  or  in  crevices 
of  the  stem  of  some  other  plant,  as  the  mosses,  for  example. 
There  are  certain  plants,  the  roots  of  which  arise  at  a  considera- 
ble distance  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  have  only  their  ex- 
tremity buried  in  the  earth,  so  that  the  greater  part  of  their  length 
remains  exposed  to  the  air.  To  such  roots  we  give  the  name  of 
aerial  or  adventitious  roots;  the  maize  or  Indian  corn  and  many 
other  American  plants  have  them. 

6.  We  see  now  that  it  is  not  a  constant  character  of  roots  to 
be  covered  up  in  the  earth ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  we  should  be 
equally  deceived  if  we  were  to  regard  as  roots  all  parts  of  plants 
that  are   buried  in  the  soil ;  for  it  sometimes  happens  that  the 
stem,  instead  of  rising  up  through  the  air,  creeps  horizontally 
under  ground ;  but  the  structure  of  the  two  parts  is  different,  and 
prevents  them  from  being  confounded  with  each  other.    The  tissue 
of  roots  is  whitish,  and  never  becomes  green  by  exposure  to  the 
action  of  light,  which  occur  to  all  other  parts  of  plants.     [Those 
stems  which  creep  along  under  the  ground,  are  called  root-stalks, 
or  subterranean,  or  rhizome  (from  the  Greek  ridsa,  root)  stems  ; 
the  stems  of  the  orris  root,  ginger,  and  potato,  upon  which  grow 
the  tubers  we  eat,  are  instances  of  this  kind.] 

7.  The   root,  considered    as   a   whole,  generally   consists  of 
three  distinct  parts :    First,  the  body  or  middle  part,  which   is 
sometimes  globular,  and,  at  others,  similar  in  form  to  a  descend- 
ing stem ;  Second,  the  radicles,  the  more  or  less  delicate  fibres 
which  terminate  the  root  at  its  lower  part ;  and,  third,  the  neck 
or  collum,  the  point  that  separates  it  from  the  stem,  and  which  is 
often  marked  by  being  smaller. 

8.  The  internal  structure  of  roots  varies ;  in  general,  it  is  di- 
vided into  the  cortical  part,  or  bark  of  the  root,  and  central  or 
ligneous  part. 

9.  The  bark  of  the  root,  which  is  often  very  thick,  is  entirely 
composed  of  cells  ;  its  epidermis  is  always  without  sto'mata. 

10.  The  ligneous  body  of  the  root  is  not  ordinarily  composed 
of  distinct  fibres,  and  we  do  not  find  tracheae  in  it  as  in  the  stalk 
or  stem  of  vascular  plants  ;  nor  has  it  pith  in  the  centre. 


6.  Are  roots  always  under  ground  ?     Does  the  stem  ever  grow  under 
ground  ?     How  is   a  root  distinguished   from   a   stem   that  grows  under 
ground  ?     How  is  the  tissue  of  roots  characterized  ?     How  are  those  stems 
which  grow  under  the  soil  designated  ? 

7.  How  is  the  root  divided  ? 

8.  How  is  the  internal  structure  of  roots  divided  ? 

9.  What  is  the  structure  of  the  bark  of  the  root  ? 
10.  What  is  the  ligneous  body  of  the  root  ? 


DIVISION  OF  ROOTS.  19 

11.  The  extremities  of  the  radicles  are  unprovided  with  epi- 
dermis, and  are  composed  only  of  rounded  cellular  tissue ;  these 
parts  are  called  spongioles  (little  sponges),  and,  as  we  shall  pre- 
sently see,  play  a  very  important  part  in  absorption. 

12.  The  general  form  of  roots  varies  much,  and  gives  rise  to 
numerous  distinctions,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  following : 

DIVISION  OF  ROOTS. 

Roots  are  primarily  divided  into  Simple  and  Compound  or  Multiple 
Roots. 

SIMPLE  ROOTS  have  a  single  base  continuous  with  the  stem;  they  are 
called 

Tap-roots,  when  they  descend  perpendicularly,  and  have  almost  the  whole 
of  their  spongioles  united  at  their  extremity.  These  are 

Fusiform,  when  they  are  shaped  like  carrots,  and 

Napiform,  Tuberous,  &c.,  when  they  are  swelled  and  rounded  like  turnips. 

Fibrous,  when  they  are  very  branching  and  ordinarily  furnished  with 
numerous  spongioles.  These  are 

Knotted,  when  they  present  swellings  along  the  course  of  their  fibres,  and 

Creeping,  or  Repent,  when  they  run  along  near  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

The  second  primary  division  of  roots  is 

The  COMPOUND  ROOTS  :  they  arise  in  great  numbers  from  the  neck  of  the 
plant.  They  are  said  to  be 

Branching,  or  Capillary,  when  each  fibre,  which  is  distinct  at  its  origin, 
gives  off  branches  in  abundance ; 

Knotted,  when  the  fibres  have  swellings  or  knots  in  their  course ;  and 

Fusiform,  or  Fasciculate,  when  they  are  formed  by  the  union  of  a  great 
many  more  or  less  elongated  tubercles. 

13.  We  may  add  that  roots  are  said  to  be  fleshy,  when  they 
are  more  succulent  (juicy)  and  larger  than  the  base  of  the  stem, 
and  ligneous,  when  their  tissue  resembles  wood.    They  frequently 
present  swellings  or  tubers,  which  are  always  masses  of  nutritive 
matter   destined  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  plant  at  a  certain 
period. 

14.  Finally,  we  give  the  name  of  adventitious  roots  to  those 
which,  in  certain  instances,  arise  from  the  stem,  but  are  in  other 
respects  analogous  to  ordinary  roots.     (See  pages  63  and  64.) 

OF  THE  STEM  (CAULIS). 

15.  We  give  the  name  of  STEM  (Cavlis,  Stalk)  to  that  part 
of  plants  which  is  intermediate  between  the  roots  and  the  leaves. 

11.  What  are  spongioles  ? 

12.  What  is  a  simple  root?     What  is  a  tap-root?     What  is  a  fusirbrm 
root?     What  is  a  napiform  root?     What  is   a  fibrous  root?     What  is  a 
knotted  root  ?     When  is  a  root  said  to  be  creeping  ?     What  is  a  compound 
root  ?     What  is  a  capillary  root  ? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  a  fleshy  root  ?    What  is  meant  by  a  ligneous  root? 
What  is  the  use  of  those  swellings  or  tubers  found  on  certain  roots  ? 

14.  What  are  adventitious  roots  ? 

15.  What  do  you  mean  by  stem  ? 


20  STEMS. 


16.  The  stem  grows  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  root,  and 
seeks  the  air  and  light ;  in  general,  it  rises  vertically  above  the 
soil,  and  serves  to  support  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit. 

17.  Generally  this  part  of  a  vegetable  is  very  apparent  and 
easily  recognised ;  sometimes  it  is  simple,  at  others   branching, 
and  when  it  is  simple  below,  and  branching  in  its  superior  part, 
the  first  part  is  called  the  trunk,  and  to  the  second  we  give  the 
name  of  branches. 

18.  All  vascular  plants  are  provided  with   a  stem,  but  some- 
times it  is  so  short  and  so  enveloped  in  leaves,  or  so  completely 
hidden  in  the  ground,  that  it  seems  not  to  exist ;  vegetables  thus 
formed,  are  named  a'caulous  plants  (from  the  Greek,  a,  without, 
and  kavlos,  stem  or  stalk) ;  but  this  absence  of  the  stem  is  only  in 
appearance. 

19.  Thus,  in  tulip  and  other  bulbs,  there  exists 
amidst  the  leaves  in  form  of  scales,  of  which  the 
greater    part   of   these    bodies    is   composed,   a 
tissue   which   separates   these   appendages  from 
the    roots,  and    which    constitutes    a    true    stem 
(Jig.  11);  only,  instead  of  being  elongated   and 
cylindrical,  as  is  ordinarily  the  case,  it  is   gene- 
rally globular  and  flattened  above,  an   arrange- 
ment  which    has   procured   for   it   the  name  of 

cormus  or  plateau.  Fi&-  H-— BULB. 

20.  Subterraneous  or  rhizome  stems  have  the  appearance  of 
roots,  but  are  distinguished  from   them   by  their  structure  and 
several  other  characters  ;  their  tissue  becomes  green   by  the  ac- 
tion of  light,  which  is  never  the  case  in  true  roots,  and,  under  the 
influence  of  moisture,  branches  spring  up  covered  with   leaves, 
but  radicles  never  grow  from  them.     Sometimes  these  subterra- 
neous stems  bear,  here  and  there,  irregular  tubercles. 

21.  The  stem  of  a  plant  assumes  numerous  and  very  different 
appearances  in  different  plants. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  11. — A  bulb  or  onion,  showing  the  roots  (o) ; — the 
cormus,  or  plateau,  or  representative  of  the  stem  (ft) ; — and  the  leaves  or 
scales  (c) ;  Cormus  (from  the  Greek  Arormos,  a  stem),  a  rhizome,  or  subter- 
raneous stem. 


16.  In  what  direction  does  the  stem  grow  ?     What  is  the  use  of  the 
stem? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  trunk  and  by  branches  ? 

18.  Are  all  plants  provided  with  a  stem? 

19.  What  is  a  cormus  ? 

20.  How  are  subterraneous  stems  distinguished  from  roots  ?     What  is 
the  effect  of  light  on  the  colour  of  plants  ? 

21.  Is  the  form  of  the  stem  in  all  parts  the  same  ?    What  are  the  forms  ? 
What  is  a  scape  ? 

.    V  "  '  • 


STEMS.  21 


If  above  ground,  it  is  root-shaped,  or  knotted ;  ascending ; 
creeping ;  articulated ;  leafless,  succulent,  and  deformed ;  or 
leafy. 

If  it  bears  the  flowers,  proceeding  immediately  from  the  soil  or 
near  it,  it  is  a  scape. 

22.  The  stem,  in  most  plants,  rises  vertically  in  the  air,  but 
sometimes  it  wants  strength  to  sustain  itself,  and  rests  drooping 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to  which  it  often  attaches  itself  by 
roots  (stems  of  this  kind  are  named  repent  or  creeping),  or  they 
sustain  themselves  upon  some  other  more  robust  plant,  as  is  seen 
in  the  climbing  plants,  &c.     It  is  observed  that  the  latter  often 
wind  themselves  spirally  round  whatever  supports  them;  they  are 
then  called  twining  or  voluble  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note,  that  the 
direction  according  to  which  different  individuals  of  the  same 
species  wind  themselves,  never  varies;   in  some,  such   as  the 
haricot  or  bean,  and  bind-weed,  it  is  from  right  to  left ;  in  others, 
such  as  the  honeysuckle  and  hop,  it  is  constantly  from  left  to 
right. 

23.  While  young,  stems  are  always  of  a  soft  consistence  and 
similar  to  grass ;  they  often  remain  in  this  state,  and   live  but  a 
year ;  they  are  then  called  herbaceous  stems.     In  other  instances 
they  acquire  more  or  less  hardness,  their  interior  is  transformed 
into  wood,  and  they  live  out  of  the  ground  many  years  :  in  this 
case  they  are  called  ligneous  stems. 

24.  When  the  stem,  although  it  be  persistent,  remains  watery 
and  more  or  less  soft,  it  takes  the  name  of  fleshy  stem. 

25.  We  generally  apply  the  name  of  shrub  to  those  plants 
with  a  ligneous  stem  which  branch  at  their  base,  and  do  not 
much  exceed  a  man  in  height,  such  as  the  rose  or  lilac ;  and  we 
give  the  name  of  tree  to  those  with  a  ligneous  (woody)  stem  that 
branch  only  at  the  superior   part,  and   rise  to  a  considerable 
height.     The  branches  are  only  divisions  of  the  trunk  which  di- 
verge more  or  less  from  it,  and  are  again  subdivided  in  their  turn ; 
upon  their  arrangement  depends  the  general  form  of  the  plant ; 
sometimes  they  stand  up,  which  gives  the  tree  a  pyramidal  form ; 
sometimes  they  are  spread  out,  and  at  others  they  are  pendent  or 
hanging. 

26.  Stems  of  certain  plants  present  at  intervals  knots  or  enlarge- 

22.  What  is  meant  by  a  creeping  stem  ?     What  is  meant  by  twining  or 
voluble  stems  ?     What  is  especially  remarkable  in  these  stems? 

23.  What  is  an  herbaceous  stem  1     What  is  a  ligneous  stem  ? 

24.  What  is  a  fleshy  stem  ? 

25.  What  is  a  shrub?    How  does  a  tree  differ  from  a  shrub? 

26.  What  is  a  culm  ? 


22 


STEMS. 


Fig.  12. — DATE   PALM. 


merits,  produced  by  an  indura- 
tion and  a  swelling  of  their 
tissue;  when  they  are  also 
hollow  internally,  they  are 
designated  under  the  name  of 
culm  or  straw.  The  stems  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats  are  of 
this  kind. 

27.  We  give  the  name   of 
stipe  to  stems  which  resemble  a 
round  column,  as  large  above 
as  below,  and  crowned  with  a 
cluster  of  leaves  or  flowers,  like 
the  stems  of  palms  (jig-  12). 

28.  The  stem  of  all  vascular 
plants  is  composed  of  fibres  ar* 
ranged  in  bundles  (fasciculi), 
or  layers,  and  variously  sur- 
rounded    by    cellular    tissue ; 
but  we  observe  very  great  dif- 
ferences   in    their    structure ; 
and    these    variations,    which 
coincide    with    differences   not 
less   important  in    their   mode 
of  growth,  have   caused  vas- 
cular plants  to  be  divided  into 
two  groups;  namely,  EX'OGENS 
and  EN'DOGENS.* 


*  EX'OGENS  (Exogenous  plants).  From  the  Greek,  ex,  from,  and  geinomai, 
I  grow.  A  term  applied  to  those  plants,  a  transverse  slice  of  whose  stem 
exhibits  a  central  cellular  substance  or  pith,  an  external  cellular  and  fibrous 
ring  or  bark,  and  an  intermediate  woody  mass,  and  certain  fine  lines  radiat- 
ing from  the  pith  to  the  bark  through  the  wood,  and  called  medullary  rays. 
They  are  called  EX'OGENS,  because  they  add  to  their  wood  by  successive 
external  additions ;  and  are  the  same  as  what  are  otherwise  called  dicoty'- 
ledons.  They  constitute  one  of  the  primary  classes  into  which  the  vegetable 
world  is  divided,  characterized  by  their  leaves  being  reticulated  ;  by  their 
stems  having  a  distinct  deposition  of  bark,  wood,  and  pith ;  by  their  em- 
bryo  having  two  cotyledons ;  and  by  their  flowers  being  usually  formed  on 
a  quinary  type. 

EN'DOGENS  (Endogenous  plants).  From  the  Greek,  endon,  within,  and 
geinomai,  I  grow.  One  of  the  primary  classes  of  plants,  so  called  because 
their  stems  grow  by  successive  additions  to  the  inside.  They  are  usually 


27.  What  is  a  stipe  ? 

28.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  stem  in  vascular  plants  ? 
lar  plants  divided  ? 


How  are  vascu- 


STEMS  OF  EXOGENS.  23 


29.  The    CLASS    OF   EX'OGENS   comprises   all    the   trees  and 
shrubs  of  our  forests,  and  is  composed  of  vascular  plants,  the 
stem  of  which  has  a  medullary  canal  in  the  centre,  and  grows  by 
super-posed  layers  (Jig-  13). 

30.  The  CLASS  OF  EN'DOGENS  comprises  those  plants  in  which 
the  stern  has  neither  a  central  canal  nor  concentric  layers  (fig* 
14).     The  palms  belong  to  this  division. 

Structure  of  the  Stems  of  Exogenous  Plants. 

31.  In  the  stems  of  these  plants  we  distinguish  two  principal 
parts :  the  bark,  and  the  central,  or  ligneous  part,  which  might 
be  called  the  body  of  the  stem.     Each  one  of  these  portions  is  in 
turn  composed  of  several  different  parts ;  the  central  portion  of 
the  stem  is  formed  by  a  central  pith,  by  ligneous  layers,  and  by 
medullary  rays ;  the  bark,  or  cortical  portion,  is  composed  of  the 
epidermis  of  a  cellular  envelope,  and  of  a  fibrous  part  named 
liber,  or   cortical    layers.     (Liber,  Latin,  bark,  is  the   interior 
lining  of  the  bark  of  ex'ogenous  plants.) 

32.  If  we  cut  through  an  elder,  or  any  other  ex'ogenous  tree, 
transversely,  we  observe  in   the  centre  a  canal,  which  is  ordi- 
narily  angular,   or  very  nearly  cylindrical,  and  which,  in  the 
young  branches,  if  not  in  the  whole  plant,  is  filled  with  a  round 
cellular  tissue  (Jig-  13,  a);  this  cavity  is  called   the  medullary 
canal,  and  the  cellular  tissue  found  in  it  is  named  the  pith  of  the 
plant. 

33.  This  central  pith  is  of  a  soft  consistence,  and  of  a  very 
homoge'neous*  structure;  while  young  it  is  always  humid,  and 
of  a  light  greenish  tint ;  but  with  the  progress  of  age,  the  cells 
of  which  it  is  composed  become  empty,  dry,  and  assume  a  re- 
markable whiteness ;   sometimes  it  is  torn   by  the  effect  of  the 
elongation  of  the  stem,  and  separates  in    laminae  or  bundles,  as 
may  be  easily  seen  in  branches  of  jasmine  that  have  attained  one 
year  old. 

known  by  the  veins  of  their  leaves  running  parallel  with  each  other,  with- 
out  branching  or  dividing.  Grasses,  lilies,  the  asparagus,  and  similar 
plants  belong  to  this  class,  which  in  warm  countries  contains  trees  of  large 
size,  such  as  palms  and  screw  pines. 

*  Homoge'neous.  From  the  Greek,  omou,  together,  and  genas,  kind. 
Of  the  same  kind.  Bodies  whose  constituent  elements  are  of  one  and  the 
same  kind,  are  said  to  be  homoge'neous. 

29.  What  is  the  general  character  of  those  plants  which  constitute  the 
class  of  Ex'ogens  ? 

30.  What  kind  of  plants  does  the  class  of  En'dogens  comprise  ? 

31.  How  is  the  stem  of  ex'ogenous  plants  divided  ?     What  is  the  central 
portion  ?     What  is  bark  ? 

32.  What  is  the  medullary  canal  of  plants  ?     What  is  meant  by  pith  ? 

33.  What  is  the  character  of  pith  ? 


24 


PITH.— WOOD. 


34.  In    herbaceous   plants,   and   in   ligneous   plants    of  very 
rapid  growth  (such  as  the  elder),  the  space  occupied   by  the  pith 
is  very  considerable ;  but  in  trees,  the  wood  of  which   is  very 
hard,  such  as  the  oak,  the  medullary  canal  or  sheath  is  generally 
very  small. 

35.  The   parietes  of  the  canal,  containing   the  central   pith, 
called  the  medullary  sheath,  are  formed  of  longitudinal  fibres, 
ordinarily  arranged  in  a  circle,  and  of  a  layer  composed  of  tra- 
cheae, false  tracheae,  and  porous  vessels.     It  is  the  only  part  of 
the  stem  in  which  true  tracheae  have  been  observed. 

36.  Between  the  medullary  canal  and  the  bark,  is  the  ligneous 
body,  or  wood,   which   is  composed   of  concentric   layers,  the 
number  of  which  is  more  or  less  considerable,  according  to  the 


c  b       a 

Fig.  13. TRANSVERSE    SECTION   OF   AN   Ex'OGENOUS    STEM. 

age  of  the  plant  (Jig.  13,  6,  c)  ;  each  of  these  layers  is  com 
posed  of  longitudinal  fibres,  united  to  the  subjacent  layer  by  eel 
lular  tissue.  These  fibres  are  formed  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  those  of  the  medullary  sheath,  except  that  no  tracheae  are 
found  in  them ;  they  are  composed  only  of  clostres  or  elongated 
cells,  or  dotted  or  rayed  vessels. 

37.  The  ligneous  body  constitutes  what  is  generally  termed 
wood  ;  its  central  portion  is  harder  than  its  external  part,  and  is 


Explanation  of  Fig.  13. — Transverse  section  of  an  ex'ogenous  stem : — 
a.  the  pith  ; — b.  layers  of  the  heart  of  the  wood  ; — c.  layers  of  the  albur'num 
or  sap-wood ; — d.  the  bark. 


34.  How  does  the  pith  vary  in  quantity  in  different  plants  ? 

35.  What  is  meant  by  medullary  sheath  ?     What  is  remarkable  in  its 
structure  ? 

36.  What  is  meant  by  the  ligneous  body  ?     How  is  it  formed  ? 

37.  What  is  wood  ?     What  is  meant  by  true  wood  ?     What  is  meant  by 
alburnum  ?     In  what  respect  does  true  differ  from  sap  wood  ? 


BARK.  25 


ordinarily  of  a  different  colour  :  it  is  this  part  which  is  commonly 
called  the  heart  of  the  wood,  and  which  botanists  designate  under 
the  name  of  true-wood,  heart-wood,  or  duramen,  while  they  give 
the  name  of  albur'mtm  or  sap-wood  to  the  external  ligneous 
layers,  the  solidity  of  which  is  less,  and  the  colour  whiter  (Jig- 
13,  c).  In  other  respects  the  structure  of  these  parts  is  the  same, 
only  the  ligneous  fibres  of  the  true  or  perfect  wood  are  filled  with 
solid  matters  deposited  in  their  interior,  while  the  proportion  of 
liquids  is  more  considerable  in  the  sap-wood  or  alburnum.  In 
trees  of  slow  growth  the  line  of  demarcation  is  very  distinct  be- 
tween I  he  heart  and  sap-wood,  and  in  the  coloured  woods,  such 
as  ebony,  mahogany,  &c.,  it  is  the  heart  only  that  possesses  their 
peculiar  colour,  the  sap-wood  being  usually  white.  In  trees  of 
very  rapid  growth,  such  as  the  poplar,  willow,  &c.,  there  is,  on 
the  contrary,  but  little  difference  between  these  two  ligneous  lay- 
ers. As  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel,  the  albur'num  is  gradually 
converted  into  perfect  wood,  and  it  is  by  the  formation  of  new 
ligneous  layers  between  those  already  formed  and  the  bark,  that 
the  stem  increases  in  thickness. 

38.  The  medullary  rays  are  the  divergent  lines  which  run 
from  the  centre  of  the  stem  towards   its   circumference  ;    they 
are  composed  of  vertical  laminae  of  compressed  cellular  tissue, 
and  are  very  analogous  to  the  pith,  from  which  they  seem  to 
arise.     These   rays   come   in    part    from   the   external  ligneous 
layers,  and  terminate  in  the  bark,  thus  establishing  a  communi- 
cation between  the  superficial  and  central  parts  of  the  stem. 

39.  The  bark  is  composed  first  of  a  layer  of  cellular  tissue, 
which  constitutes  the  epidermis,  and  of  a  deeper  layer  formed 
of  clostres  grouped  together  so  as  to  form  fibres,  but  without 
being  united  with  tracheae ;  in  the  progress  of  age,  new  alter- 
nating zones  of  cellular  tissue  and  fibres,  are  formed  beneath  the 
preceding,  and  there  results  from  it  a  series  of  super-posed   lay- 
ers, which  resemble  those  of  the  wood,  but  differ  from  them  es- 
sentially in  their  mode  of  growth ;  we  have  observed  that  the 
latter  are  formed  successively  one  on   top  of  the  other ;  in  the 
bark,  on  the  contrary,  growth  takes  place  from  without  inwards. 

40.  We  give  the  name  of  liber  to  the  inner  layers  of  the  bark, 
because  they  are  easily  detached  in  thin  "plates  or  laminae,  and 
because  the  ancients  made  use  of  it,  as  we  do  paper,  to  write  upon.* 

*  Some  of  our  young  readers  may  remember  the  Latin  word,  liber,  and 
its  several  versions,  given  as  follows  : 

"  Liber,  book  ;  liber,  tree ; 
Liber,  child,  and  liber,  free." 


38.  What  are  medullary  rays? 

39.  How  is  bark  formed  ?     In  what  respect  does  bark  differ  in  its  man- 
ner  of  growth  from  wood  ? 

40.  What  part  is  culled  liber  7 
3 


26 


CORK.— STEMS  OF  ENDOGENS. 


41.  The  external  layer  of  cellular  tissue  constitutes  the  epi- 
dermis, and   is  what    botanists    term    the   herbaceous   envelope 
of  the  bark.     In  the  course  of  the  growth  of  the  subjacent  parts, 
it  soon  becomes  strongly  compressed,  and  at  a  certain  epoch,  we 
see  it  crack  and  tear  in  flexible  lamina?,  or  detach  itself  in  scales 
or  patches  ;  the  neighbouring  cortical  layers  undergo  the  same  al- 
terations, and  when  the  part  of  the  bark  thus  modified  has  been 
raised  up,  the  laminae  of  cellular  tissue  thus  exposed  becomes  for 
a  brief  period  a  kind  of  epidermis,  until  it  is  itself  in  turn  detached. 
For  this  reason  the  thickness  of  the  bark  is  never  very  considera- 
ble, and  its  surface  is  continually  renewed.     In   some  plants  the 
herbaceous  layer  becomes  very  much  developed,  and  the  portion 
of  bark  that  is  thus  separated  is  of  sufficient  consistence  and  thick- 
ness to  be  very  useful  to   us   in  the  arts.     Cork,  for  example,  b 
only  the  superficial  part  of  the  bark  of  a  particular  species  of  oak, 
—  quercus  robvr,  —  which    detaches    itself  from    the  liber  every 
eight  or  nine  years,  and  it  may  be  removed  more  frequently  with- 
out any  danger  of  destroying  the  tree. 

42.  Bark   often    contains,  in    its   interior,  cavities  which    are 
reservoirs  of  proper  juices,  and,  in   particular,  those  called  the 
vessels  of  the  latex. 

Structure  of  the  Stem  of  Endogenous  Plants. 

43.  The  stem  of  these  plants, 
that    of    a    palm,    for     example 
(Jig.  14),   is  formed    of  a  consi- 
derable   mass   of  cellular   tissue, 
analogous  to  pith,  through  which 
penetrate    bundles    of   fibres     in 
various  ways,  but  never  forming 
concentric  layers,  as  in  the  ex'o- 
genous    plants.      Each   of    these 
fibres    is    composed  of  elongated 
cellules,  of  large   dotted  vessels, 
of  tracheae,  of  proper  vessels,  and 
of    polyhedral     cells;    they    are 
closer   together   near   the   centre 
of  the  stem  than  towards  its  cir- 
cumference,  and    their    superior 
extremity  is  abruptly  curved  out- 
wards  to    be    continued    into    the 

Explanation  of  Fig.  14.  —  Section   of  the  stem  of  an  endogenous  plant, 
fa  palm)  ;—  a.  cellular  tissue  ;—  b.  fibres  ;—  c.  external  pellicle. 

41.  What  is  epidermis  ?     How  is  it  formed  ?     What  is  cork  ? 

42.  What  does  bark  contain  ? 

43.  What  is  the  structure  of  the  stem  in  endogenous  plants  ? 


• 
•  ^.-SECTION  OF  AN  ENDOGEN. 


ABSORPTION  AND  ASCENT  OF  SAP.  27 

leaves  (c).  It  is  to  be  remarked  also,  that  in  general  there  is  no 
distinct  bark,  and  that  the  external  pellicle  never  grows  in  layers, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  Ex'ogens. 

CELLULAR  PLANTS  never  present  parts  that  are  really  analo- 
gous to  the  organs  we  have  just  spoken  of,  and  to  which  we  shall 
again  recur. 


LESSON  III. 

MECHANISM  OF  THE  ABSORPTION  AND  ASCENT  OF  THE  SAP. 
— Ascending  Sap  —  Exhalation  —  Respiration  —  Leaves  — 
Parts  of  Leaves ;  their  Structure,  Shape,  and  Position — 
Stipules — Tendrils — Examples  of  the  Forms  of  Simple  and 
Compound  Leaves — Exhalation — Respiration — Distribution 
of  the  Nutritive  Juices — Descending  Sap — Secretions — Ex- 
cretions — Succession  of  Crops — Proper  Juices — Lignin — 
Fecula — Growth  of  Plants — Grafting — Effects  of  the  Sea- 
sons on  the  Nutrition  of  Plants — The  Age  of  Plants. 

MECHANISM   OF   THE  ABSORPTION  AND  ASCENT   OF  THE 

SAP. 

1.  It  is  by  the  process  of  absorption  that  plants  derive  from 
the  soil  in  which  they  are  fixed,  the  nutritive  matters  necessary 
for  their  growth  and  the  maintenance  of  their  existence. 

2.  The  nutritive  matters,  to  be  pumped  up  in  this   manner, 
must  necessarily  be  in  a  fluid  state ;  in  the  solid  form  they  could 
not  be  absorbed ;  and  it  is,  in  fact,  water  holding  various  sub- 
stances in  solution,  that  thus  penetrates  the  plant  and  serves  for 
its  nourishment. 

3.  It  is  chiefly,  and  sometimes  exclusively,  by  the  extremity 
of  the   roots   that   this   operation   is   effected .     The   epidermis, 
which  covers  almost  the  whole  plant,  in  general  offers  obstacles 
to  the  passage  of  these  liquids ;  but  the  spongioles,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  are  unprovided  with  this  envelope,  and  constitute 
a  cellular  tissue  which  gives  a  ready  passage  to  water ;  for  this 
reason  we  must  consider  these  spongioles  as  the  chief  organs  of 
absorption. 

4.  Some   plants   also  absorb  by  the  leaves;    and   when   the 


1.  By  what  process  do  plants  derive  nourishment  from  the  soil  in  which 
they  grow  ? 

2.  In  what  state  or  condition  must  the  food  of  plants  be  before  it  can 
nourish  them  ? 

3.  What  are  the  chief  organs  of  absorption  ?     How  is   this   operation 
effected  ? 

4  Is  absorption  carried  on  by  the  roots  alone  ? 


28  ASCENDING  SAP. 


stem  of  a  plant  is  cut  across,  its  internal  tissue  being  thus  laid 
hare,  also  pumps  up  water  in  which  it  may  be  placed  ;  but  in  the 
ordinary  state  of  a  plant,  these  cases  are  exceptions,  and  the  ab- 
sorption of  liquids  is  carried  on  in  the  most  active  manner  by  the 
spongioles. 

5.  It  has  been  remarked  that  water,  rendered  thick  and  viscid 
by  the  presence  of  foreign  substances,  was  absorbed  very  slowly 
and  willi   difficulty,  but  when   its  fluidity  is  not    diminished  by 
matters  that    it  holds  in   solution,  it   penetrates   vegetables  just 
as  if  it  M^ere  pure.     Now,  the  water  which  reaches   the   roots 
of  plants    always   holds  in   solution  a    greater  or  less  quantity 
of  air,  earthy   salts,  and  organic   matter ;    and  consequently  it 
introduces  these  substances  into  the  interior  of  the  plant,  which 
is  either  benefited  or  injured  according  as  they  are   proper  for 
its  nutrition,  or  as  they  exert  an  injurious  influence    upon    its 
organs. 

6.  The  liquids  thus  absorbed  by  the  roots  constitute  the  as- 
cending sap,  which  rises  through  the  stem  to  reach  the  leaves. 

7.  The  ascent  of  the  sap  is  always  effected  through  the  ligneous 
body  ;  and  it  is  remarked  that  it  takes  place  more  actively  through 
the  albur'num  than  through  the  perfect  wood. 

8.  It  is  not  known  with   certainty  by  what  way  the  absorbed 
liquids  rise  up  in  this  manner;  many  botanists  think  that  it  is 
only  by  the  intercellular  passages ;  others  believe  that  it  is  by 
the  vessels;  and   in  fact,  if  we  place   the  roots  of  a  plant    in 
coloured  water,  we  are  not  long  in  perceiving  that  the  vessels 
of  the  stem  assume  the  same  colour,  which  seems  to  indicate  that 
it  is  through  these  tubes  that  the  liquids  mount  up  towards  the 
leaves.     Nevertheless,    under   ordinary    circumstances,  we   find 
these  vessels  empty,  or  at  least  filled  with  air,  and  it  would  seem 
that  it  is  chiefly  through  their  interior  that  the  air,  absorbed   by 
the  roots,  ris^s  in  the  stem  of  the  plant. 

9.  The  rapidity  and  force  with  which  the  ascent  of  sap  takes- 
place,  are  sometimes  extremely  great.     In  the  experiments  made 
upon  this  subject,  it  has  been  shown  that  a  branch  of  an  apple  tree 
cut  across  and  surmounted  by  a  tube,  raised  water  contained  in 
the    laiter   several  feet   in  the  space  of  some  hours  ;  and  what 
are  called  vine  tears,  is  nothing  but  the  ascending  sap,  which 
escapes    in    abundance  when    the   plant   is   trimmed.     In   other 
experiments  made   to   ascertain   the  force  with    which   the   sap 


5.  How  are  earthy  salts  introduced  into  the  substance  of  living  plants  ? 

6.  What  constitutes  the  ascending  sap  ? 

7.  Through  what  part  of  the  plant  does  the  sap  ascend  ? 

8.  What  is  the  manner  of  the  ascent  of  the  sap  ? 

9.  What  is  the  force  and  rapidity  of  the  ascent  of  the  sap? 


EXHALATION.— RESPIRATION.— LEAVES.  29 

mounts  in  the  grape  vine,  it  was  found  to  be  sometimes  so  great 
as  to  sustain  the  weight  of  a  column  of  water,  over  forty  feet  in 
height. 

10.  The  circumstances  that  have  most  influence  upon  the  as- 
cent of  the  sap  are  heat  and  light. 

OF  EXHALATION  AND  RESPIRATION. 

11.  To  render  it  fit  for  the  purpose  of  nutrition,  the  ascending 
sap  undergoes,  in  the  interior  of  the  plant,  considerable  changes  ; 
these  changes  are  the  result  of  two  important  phenomena  ;  name- 
ly, exhalation  and  respiration. 

12.  The  leaves  are  the  chief  seat  of  these  two  functions,  and 
must  be  regarded  as  their  special  organs.     We  will  now  study 
their  structure. 

OF  LEAVES. 

13.  The  leaves  of  vascular  plants  are  the  lateral  appendages 
of  the  stem,  formed  of  more  or  less  distinct  fibres  and   cellular 
tissue,  enclosing,  in  its  interior,  a  great  deal  of  green  colouring 
matter. 

14.  The  fibres  of  the  leaf  are  the  continuation  of  those  of  the 
stem,  but  ordinarily  they  contain   more    trachece ;    in    general, 
they  form  at  first  a  cylindrical  fasciculus  (bundle),  caniculated 
(that  is,  hollowed  in  a  gutter  on   the  opposite  side),  or  laterally 
compressed,  which  is  named  petiole,  or  leaf-stalk  ;    then    they 
expand  and  join  again  to  form  the  flat  part  called  the  blade  or 
limb  of  the   leaf.     When   the   fibres    separate   immediately    on 
springing  from  the  stem,  the  leaf  has  no   pedicle  or  petiole,  and 
is  then  said  to  be  sessile  (from  the  Latin,  sedeo,  I   sit).      The 
petiole  of  dicotyle'donous*   plants   is    separated  from    the   stem 
by  an  articulation  or  joint,  that  is,  a  line  at  which  its  tissue  offers 
but  little  resistance,  the  cells  and  vessels  of  which  it  is  composed 
being  placed  end  to  end,  instead  of  being  mingled  as  usual  ;  it  is 
on  account  of  this  arrangement  that  the  leaves  fall  when  they 
fade,  while  those  of  which  the  limb  or  blade  arises  directly  from 
the  stem  are  destroyed  only  little  by  little,  and  remain  adherent 
at  their  base.     The  first  are  called  caducous,  or  articulate  leaves, 

*  DICOTYLE'DONOUS.     (From  the  Greek,  disy  double,  and  kotuledon,  a  seed 
leaf.)     Having  a  double  seed-leaf  or  seed-lobe. 

10.  What  circumstances  most  influence  the  ascent  of  the  sap? 

11.  Does  the  ascending   sap   undergo   any  change   in   the   interior  of 
plants  ? 

12.  In  what  part  of  plants  do  exhalation  and  respiration  take  place  ? 

13.  What  are  leaves  ? 

14.  How  are  leaves  formed  ?     What  is  the  petiole  ?     What  is  the  limb  of 
a  leaf?     When  is  a  leaf  said  to  be  sessile  ?     What  are  caducous  or  articu. 
late  leaves  ?     What  are  persistent  leaves  ? 

3* 


30 


STRUCTURE  OF  LEAVES. 


and  to  the  second  we  give  the  name  of  persistent ;  the  leaves  of 
fir  trees  are  persistent. 

15.  When  all  parts  of  the  leaf  are  equally  adherent  to  each 
other,  it  is  named  a  simple  leaf,  whatever  may  be  the  divisions 
of  its  blade  ;  for  example,  the  leaves  of  the  lilac,  the  ranunculus, 
of  the  vine,  &c.  (see  figs.  17  to  57) ;  sometimes  the  same  tail 
or  peduncle  supports  several  petioles,  each  of  which  is  articu- 
lated upon  this  peduncle,  as  it  itself  is  upon  the  stem,  and  then 
this  assemblage  is  called  a  compound  leaf.  (Examples  of  com- 
pound leaves  are  seen  in  the  sensitive  plant,  the  leaves  of  the 
acacia,  of  the  chestnut,  &c.  See  Jigs.  58  to  74.) 

16.  The  fibres,  by  expanding 
in  the  limb,  constitute  the  nerves 
of   the   leaf,   and    the   cellular 
tissue    lodged     between     these 
bundles  of  fibres,  thus  ramified, 
constitutes    the     paren'chyma^ 
of  the  leaf  (fig.  15). 

17.  The   form   of   the    leaf 
depends    principally    upon   the 
disposition   of  the   nerves  ;    in 
general,  the  nerves  expand  on 
a  single  plane  so  as  to  form  a 
plate   or   membrane    with    two 


Fig.  15. SECTION    OF    A    LEAF. 


surfaces,  a  superior  and  an  inferior;  but  they  sometimes  ramify 
in  all  directions,  and  then  give  rise  to  leaves  characterized  by  be- 
ing thick,  cylindrical,  triangular,  or  swelled,  as  we  observe  in 
certain  fleshy  plants.  The  large  nerves  that  arise  immediately 
from  the  petiole  are  called  primary  nerves  (figs.  25  and  26)  ; 
those  which  arise  from  the  latter  are  secondary  nerves  (fig.  28)  ; 
we  sometimes  give  the  name  of  tertiary  nerves  (fig*  43)  to  those 
ramifications  which  spring  from  the  secondary  nerves,  and  we 
apply  the  name  of  veins  of  the  leaf  to  those  terminal  divisions  of 
the  nerves  which  are  visible  to  the  eye,  but  too  small  to  make  any 
projection  on  the  surface.  [The  veins  are  merely  a  continuation 


*  PAREN'CHYMA  (pronounced  pareri-ke-ma).  From  the  Greek,  partg- 
cliuein,  to  strain  through.  The  spongy  and  cellular  tissue  of  vegetables  and 
animals  is  so  called. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  15.— Section  of  a  leaf  showing  the  epidermis 
(«,  a) ; — the  paren'chyma  (&,  &) ; — the  dense  cellular  tissue  (c,  c) ; — and  the 
vessels  (rf)  of  which  its  fibres  are  composed. 

35.  What  is  a  simple  leaf?     What  is  meant  by  a  compound  leaf? 

16.  What  are  the  nerves  of  a  leaf  ?     What  is  paren'chyma  ? 

17.  Upon  what  does  the  form  of  the  leaf  depend  ?     What  are  primary 
nerves  ?    What  are  secondary  nerves  ?     What  are  the  veins  of  leaves  ? 


NERVES  OF  LEAVES.  31 

of  the  nerves,  and  both  are  constituted  of  the  same  fibres  and 
vessels.  It  must  not  be  supposed  from  the  names  that  have  been 
arbitrarily  given  them,  that  these  parts  are  similar  in  function  to 
those  parts  of  animals  of  the  same  name. 

18.  Sometimes  the  leaf  presents  one  or  more  primary  nerves 
which  diverge  in  a  straight  line  from  the  base  of  the  blade,  and 
give  rise  to  more  slender  nerves,  that  separate  from  each  other, 
following  a  straight  line,  and  forming  an  angle   with  the  first 
(Jig.  28)  :  at  other  times  the  principal  nerves  are  curved  from 
their  base  (fi,g.  34). 

19.  We   give   the   name  of  angu'linerve  leaves   to  those  in 
which  the  primary  and  secondary  nerves  are  straight,  and  form 
angles  with  each   other  (Jig.  26),  and  we  call  those  curvinerve 
leaves  in  which  the  primary  nerves  are  curved  (figs.  37  and  43). 
The  first  belong  chiefly  to  ex'ogenous  or  dicotyle'donous  plants, 
and    the   second    to  endogenous   or   monocotyle'donous    plants. 
(Monocotyle'donous. — From  the  Greek,  monos,  single,  and  kotu- 
ledon,  seed-lobe.     Applied  to  plants  that  have  but  one  seed-lobe 
or  cotyledon  in  the  embryo.) 

20.  The  angu'linerve  leaves  present  four  principal  arrange- 
ments;  sometimes  they  are  penninerve;  that  is,  provided  with  a 
middle  nerve  (called  also  midrib),  which  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
petiole,  and   which  gives   off  to   the   right  and    left   secondary 
nerves,  like  the  feathers  of  a  pen  (for  example,  the  olive  leaf, 
Jig.  22,  the  leaf  of  the  yoke-elm,  and  of  the  beech  tree) ;  some- 
times they  are  palminerve^  that  is,  provided  with  several  primary 
nerves  which  separate  from  each  other  at  the  base  of  the  blade, 
like  the  divisions  of  a  fan  (Jig.  28) ;  for  example,  the  leaf  of  the 
grape  vine,  which   has  five  primary  nerves,  and  that  of  the  mal- 
lows, in  which  we  count  seven  or  even  nine :  the  number  of 
these  nerves  is  always  unequal,  and  that  of  the  middle  appears 
to  be  the  prolongation  of  the  petiole ;  peltinerve  (fig.  45),  that  is, 
provided  with  nerves  that  radiate  on  an  oblique  plane   relatively 
to  the  petiole,  so  as  to  constitute  a  sort  of  disk   or  shield,  placed 
upon  its   peduncle  (foot),  (for  example,  the  leaf  of  the  nastur- 
tium) ;  and  in  others  again  they  are  pedalinerve,  that  is,  having 
a  very  short  central   nerve  or  midrib,  from  which  spring  two 
largely  developed  lateral  nerves,  the  ramifications  of  which  are 
very  small  towards  the  external  side  (edge)  of  the  leaf  and  very 


1 8.  Are  the  nerves  of  all  leaves  alike  in  arrangement  ? 

19.  What  are  anguli nerve  leaves  ? 

20.  What  is  a  penninerve  leaf?     (Penninerve,  from  the  Latin,  penna,  pen 
or  feather.)     What  is  a  palminerve  leaf?     (Palminerve,  from  the  Latin, 
palma,  palm  of  the  hand.)     What  is  a  peltinerve  leaf?     (Peltinerve,  from 
the  Latin,  pelta,  a  shield.) 


FORMS  OF  LEAVES. 


strong  towards  the  centre  of  the  blade,  like  the  leaves  of  the 
foetid  hellebore  (fig.  72),  and  some  of  the  arums,  for  example. 

21.  The  curvinerve  leaves,  in  general,  have  a  great  number 
of  slightly  projecting  nerves,  which  most  generally  ramify  near 
their  summit,  and  are  often  nearly  parallel  in  the  greater  part 
of  their  length  (for  example,   the  leaves  of  the  narcissus  and 
fig,.fe.37). 

22.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  space  comprised  betwixt  the 
nerves   is  not  filled  by  cellular  tissue,  which  produces  a  very 
singular  arrangement ;  the  leaf  is  then  full  of  holes  and  resem- 
bles a  trellis-work  (for  example,  the  leaves  of  the  Hydrogeton 
fenestralis) ;  or  the  holes  are  irregular,  as  we  see  in  the  leaves 
of  the  Dracontium  pertvsum. 

23.  At  other  times  the  cellular  tissue  which  surrounds   the 
nerves  is  spread  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  completely  unite  them 
to  their  utmost  extremity,  in  which  case  the  leaf  is  said  to  be 
entire  (for  example,  the   leaf  of  the  lilac,  and  of  the  olive,  figs. 
22,  52,  and  53).     But  between  these  two  very  different  modes 
of  conformation,  there  is  a  great  number  of  intermediate  degrees. 
Sometimes  the  paren'chyma  completely  unites  all  the  ramifica- 
tions of  a  secondary  nerve,  but  does  not  extend   between  the 
different  nerves  that  arise  from  the  primary  nerve,  so  that  the 
blade  is  divided  into  several  segments  or  lobes  ;  sometimes  these 
lobes  are  joined  at  the  base  or  as  far  as  the  middle  of  their  length, 
and  then  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  partite  or  divided,  and  the  intervals 
between  the  lobes   are  called  fissures  (fig.  32).      According  to 
the  number  of  these  fissures  or  divisions,  the  terms  trifid,  quin- 
qvifid,  &c.,  are  used.     In  some  instances  this  junction  is  com- 
plete,  but  the  paren'chyma  which  separates  the  last  nerves  does 
not  extend  entirely  to  their  extremity,  and  the  edges  of  the  leaf 
are  then  dentate,  as  in  the  rose  (fig.  47).     When  these  small 
marginal  divisions  are  rounded  instead  of  being  pointed,  they  are 
called  crenulations,  and  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  crenulate  (fig.  41). 

24.  The  two  surfaces  of  the  leaf  are  ordinarily  covered  with 
an  epidermis,  which  often  has  hairs  upon  the  nerves,  and  stomata 
on  the  paren'chyma ;  these  appendages  and  orifices  are,  in  gen. 
eral,  especially  numerous  on  the  inferior  surface;  and  on  this 
account  it  is  almost  always  paler  than  the  superior  surface  of  the 


21.  What  is  remarked  of  curvinerve  leaves? 

22.  Is  the  space  between  the  nerves  of  the  leaves  always  filled  by  celr 
lular  tissue  ? 

23.  What  is  meant  by  an  entire  leaf  ?     When  are  leaves  partite  ?     What 
are  fissures  of  leaves  ?     What  is  the  difference  between  a  dentate  and  a 
crenulate  leaf?     (Dentate,  from  the  Latin,  dens,  a  tooth.) 

24.  Why  is  the  inferior  surface  of  a  leaf  generally  palest  ?     What    is 
found  in  leaves  besides  the  nerves  and  cellular  tissue  ? 


POSITION  OF  LEAVES.— STIPULES.  33 

leaf.  Sometimes  there  are  no  stomata  on  the  superior  surface, 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  cells  of  the  paren'chyma  is  not  the 
same  as  beneath.  In  the  thickness  of  the  leaf  there  are,  ordi- 
narily, cavities  or  intercellular  lacunse  which  contain  air,  and 
communicate  externally  through  stomata  (Jigs.  9  and  10)  ;  some- 
times we  also  find  in  the  paren'chyma,  glands  or  reservoirs  of  the 
proper  juices. 

[The  distribution  of  the  vascular  tissue  through  the  limb  of  the  leaf  is 
termed  its  venation  or  nervation,  because  the  course  of  the  vessels  (of  which 
these  nerves  are  made  up)  have  been  supposed  to  bear  some  resemblance 
to  the  distribution  of  veins  and  nerves  in  certain  parts  of  the  animal  struc- 
ture. The  bundles  of  vessels  constituting  the  nerves,  maintain  nearly  a 
parallel  course  in  their  passage  through  the  petiole,  and  are  closely  con- 
densed together;  but  on  arriving  at  the  limb  they  separate,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  distributed  in  various  ways.  It  will  be  observed  they  may  all  be 
referred  to  one  or  the  other  of  two  classes,  called  the  angulinerve  and 
curvinerve  arrangement.] 

25.  The  position  of  the  leaves  on  the  stem  and  branches  varies 
in  different  plants,  and  furnishes  very  useful  characteristics  to 
botanists  for  the  distinction  of  species ;  sometimes  they  are  oppo- 
site, that  is,  they  rise  in  pairs  at  the  same  point  from  two  sides 
of  the  stem  or  peduncle  (Jig.  70)  ;  sometimes  they  are  verticil- 
late,  that  is,  grouped,  three  or  more  together,  around  the  same 
part  of  the  stem ;  and  at  other  times  they  are  alternate,  that  is, 
they  arise  separately  at  different  points. 

26.  It  is  remarked,  also,  that  opposite  leaves  are  almost  always 
so  arranged  that  the  different  pairs  cross  each  other.     When  they 
touch  each  other  at  the  base,  instead  of  arising  from  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  stem,  they  are  called  gemini,  or  geminate  leaves. 

27.  On    the    stems   of   many   plants,  we    observe  on   both 
sides  of  each   leaf,  small  organs  named  stipules,  which  seem 
to  be  very  analogous 

to    leaves,    but   their  ;      ,^     ,1 

nature    is    not    fully  ^    \x^™    '* 

ascertained    (Jig.  16, 

s,s).     They  are  only     / ; 

found  in  the  dicotyle'- 
donous     plants,     and 
they    sometimes     re- 
semble   little    leaves,  p 
at  others,  scales.                                  Fig-.  16. —STIPULES. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  16 :— s,«,  stipules  arising  at  the  axil  of  the  leaf,  that 
is,  where  the  petiole  joins  the  stem  ; — Z,  leaf ;— p.  petiole  ; — st.  stem. 

25.  When  are  leaves  opposite  ?     When  are  leaves  said  to  be  verticillate  ? 

26.  When  are  leaves  geminate  ? 

27.  What  are   stipules?     To  what  description  of  plants  are  they  con. 
fined  ?    What  is  their  use  ? 


34  STIPULES.— TENDRILS. 

[Whatever  arises  from  the  base  of  a  petiole,  or  of  a  leaf,  if  sessile,  oc- 
cupying the  same  place,  and  attached  to  each  side,  is  considered  a 
stipule.  The  appearance  of  this  organ  is  so  extremely  variable,  some 
being  large  and  leaflike,  others  being  mere  rudiments  of  scales,  that 
botanists  are  obliged  to  define  it  by  its  position,  and  not  by  its  organization. 

Stipules,  the  margins  of  which  cohere  in  such  a  way  that  they  form  a 
membranous  tube  sheathing  the  stem,  are  called  ochrea. — Example,  the 
rhubarb. — Lindley.] 

28.  The  filamentous  appendages,  known  under  the  name  of 
tendrils,  which  twine  themselves  round  neighbouring  bodies,  serve 
to  sustain  weak  and  climbing  plants,  are  frequently  petioles  or 
stipules,  modified  in  a  particular  manner,  but  they  are  also  often 
formed  by  the  peduncle  of  flowers  that  have  proved  abortive  in 
development. 

29.  According  to  their  duration  on  the  stem,  the  leaves  are 

Caducous,  when  they  fall  early,  as  in  the  plane  tree. 

Deciduous,  when  they  fall  before  the  new  leaf  appears,  as  in  the  horse- 
chestnut,  and  most  other  trees. 

Marcescent,  when  they  wither  before  falling,  as  in  the  oak,  and  many 
other  trees. 

Persistent  or  Evergreen  (Semper  vir  ens),  when  they  remain  on  the  ve- 
getable one  winter  or  longer,  as  the  ivy,  the  pine,  the  myrtle,  the  com- 
mon  laurel,  &c.  Plants  of  this  kind  are  called  evergreens. 

The  various  shapes  of  leaves,  and  the  names  given  to  them,  as 
well  as  the  variety  of  their  margins,  may  be  seen  in  the  following 

EXAMPLES  OF  THE  FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 

The  side  or  edge  of  the  leaf  in  which  the  petiole  is  inserted,  is 
termed  the  base,  and  the  opposite  extremity,  the  apex  of  the  leaf. 
A  linear  leaf — folium  linear -e — (Jig.  17). — (Folium, 
Latin,  a  leaf;    lineare,   Latin,    line-shape.)      The   two 
edges  straight  and  equidistant  throughout,  except  at  the 
two  extremities.    The  Jester  linearifolius,  the  star-flower, 
as  well  as  Indian  corn,  and  the  grasses  generally,  have 
leaves  of  this  kind. 

When  it  embraces  the  stem  it  is  vaginate  or 
sheathing. 

Fig.  17.  A  subulate  leaf — folium  subulatum —  (fig' 
LINEAR,  is). —  (Subulate,  from  the  Latin,  subula,  an 
awl — awl-shaped.)  Linear  at  bottom,  but  gradually 
lessening  towards  the  top,  and  ending  acute.  The 
Phascum  subulatum,  one  of  the  mosses,  and  the  jonquil,  Fig.  18. 
have  a  leaf  of  this  description.  SUBULATE, 

28.  What  are  tendrils  ? 

29.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  caducous  and  a  deciduous  leaf? 
'Caducous,  from  the    Latin,  cado,  I  fall.     Deciduous,  from  the  Latin,  de- 
cido,  I  fall  off.)     When  are  leaves  said  to  be  marcescent  ?     (Marcescent, 
from  the  Latin,  marceo,  I  wither.)      What   are  persistent  leaves?     (Per- 
«istent,  from  the  Latin,  per,  through,  and  sisto,  I  remain.) 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


35 


Fig.  19. 

OBTUSE. 


Fig.  20. 

OBCORDATE, 


Fig.  21. 

EMARGINATE. 


An  a'cerose  leaf  (from  the  Latin,  acer,  a  needle), 
in  the  form  of  a  needle,  is  seen  on  pines ;  it  is  linear 
acuminate. 

An  obtuse  leaf — folium  obtusum — (fig-  19),  blunt 
pointed ;  the  apex  is  broader  than  the  base,  and  forms 
the  segment  of  a  circle.  The  primrose  has  a  leaf  of 
this  kind. 

An  obcordate  leaf — folium  obcordatum — (fig.  20). 
— The  Latin  word  ob  is  prefixed  to  technical  terms, 
to  indicate  that  a  thing  is  inverted  :  obcordate  means 
inversely  cordate  (see  fig.  51),  the  notch  being  at 
the  apex  instead  of  the  base  of  the  leaf.  Example : 
the  Oxalis  acetosella,  sheep-sorrel. 

An  ema'rginate  leaf — folium  ema.rgina.tum — (fig. 
21). —  Emarginate  (from  the  Latin,  e,  from,  and 
margo,  margin,  or  edge),  notched.  Having  a  notch 
at  the  end.  Example :  the  Geranium  emarginatum. 

When  the  notch  or  sinus  is  very  obtuse,  it  is  said 
to  be  retuse,  or  almost  emarginate. 

A.  lanceolate  leaf — 
folium  lanceolatum — (fig- 
22) —  lance-shaped,  as  in 

the    olive.     Narrowly    ob-  Fig.  22.—  LANCEOLATE. 

long  and  tapering  to  each 
end.     The  peach  tree  has  leaves  of  this  description. 

An  acute  leaf — folium 
acutum — (fig.  23).  Sharp 
pointed.  Terminating  in 
an  acute  point  without  Fig-.  23.  —  ACUTE. 

tapering  suddenly.  The  Solidago  odora,  an  aromatic  plant,  is 
an  instance. 

A  seta'ceo-acuminate  leaf 
— folium  setaceo-acumina- 
tum — (fig.  24). — (From  the  Fig.  24.  —  SETACEO-ACUMINATE. 

Latin,  seta,  a  bristle.)  The  point  of  the  leaf  terminated  by  a 
straight  bristle-like  projection.  The  Quercus  phellos,  willow- 
leaved  oak,  is  an  example.  Leaves  are 

Mucronatc  (from  the  Latin,  mucro,  in  the  genitive,  mucronis, 
a  sharp  point),  when  an  obtuse  leaf  terminates  in  a  short,  rigid 
point,  formed  by  the  projection  of  the  midrib. 

Cuspidate  (from  the  Latin,  cuspis,  the  point  of  a  spear  or 
other  weapon),  when  it  is  more  gradually  prolonged  into  a  rigid 
point. 

Pungent,  when  it  terminates  in  a  hard  sharp  point,  like  the 
leaves  of  thistles. 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


Awned  —  aristate  (from  the  Latin,  arista,  a  beard  of  wheat), 
when  it  terminates  in  a  long,  hard  bristle  or  beard. 

An  acuminate   leaf — 
folium      acuminatum  — 
1g.   25).— -(From    the 
itin,  acumen,  a  point.) 
It  has   an  extended    ter- 
mination,   and     in     this 
r.  25.  —  ACUMINATE.  respect  differs    from   the 

lanceolate  leaf. 
The  Cornus  alternifolia  and  reed  are  examples. 
This  figure  (25)  and   the    following  (26)  show  the   primary 
nerves,  which  arise  directly  from  the  petiole  and  midrib. 

A  hastate  leaf — folium 
hastatum  —  (fg.  26). — 
(From  the  Latin,  hasta,  a 
spear  or  halbert — halbert- 
shaped.)  Triangular  with 
lobes  projecting  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  petiole. 

The  Polygonum  hasta- 
tum and  bitter-sweet  are 
Fig.  26.  —  HASTATE.  . 

examples. 

This  leaf  is  an  instance  of  an  angulinerve  leaf. 

A  sagittate  leaf — folium 


sagittatum  —  (fig-  27).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  sagitta, 
an  arrow.)  A  leaf  resem- 
bling the  head  of  an  arrow  : 
the  lobes  at  the  base  are 


Fig.  27.  —  SAGITTATE. 

elongated,  and  scarcely  diverging  from  the  petiole.     Example: 
Polygonum  sagittatum,  called  tear-thumb,  and  turkey-seed. 

A  palmato-lobate  leaf — 
folium  palmato  -  lobatum 
—  (fig.  28).  — (From  the 
Latin,  palma,  palm  of  the 
hand.)  Having  lobes  which 
give  it  some  resemblance 
to  the  hand.  This  figure 
illustrates  a  palminerve 
leaf. 

Example:  —  the  Liquid- 
ambar   styracifera,   called 
Fig.  28.— PALMATO-LOBATE.  sweeUgum. 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


37 


A  palmate  leaf — folium  palmatum  — 
(Jig-  29).  Hand-shaped,  divided  nearly 
to  the  insertion  of  the  petiole  into  oblong 
lobes  of  similar  size,  but  leaving  a  space 
entire  like  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Examples :  the  Viola  palmata,  the  pas- 
sion flower,  and  castor-oil  plant ;  also,  the 
red  and  sugar  mapJes. 


A  trilobate  leaf — folium 
trilobatum  —  (Jig.  30).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  tres,  three.) 
A  leaf  formed  of  three  lobes, 
the  margins  of  which  are 
rounded. 

A  ,  lyrate  leaf — folium 
lyratum — (f,g.  31). — (From 
the  Latin,  Z«/ro,  a  lyre.)  A 
leaf  supposed  to  resemble  the 
shape  of  a  lyre.  It  is  cut 
into  several  transverse  seg- 
ments, gradually  larger  to- 
wards the  extremity  of  the 
Ieaf,which  is  rounded,as  in  the 
Salvia  lyrata,  Lyre-leaved 
sage,  and  garden  radish. 


A  sinuate,  or  sinuose  leaf 
— folium  sinuatum — (Jig.  32). 
A  leaf  having  deep  fissures  or 
sinuses.  Bending  in  and  out. 
(Sinus:  the  bays  or  recesses 
formed  by  the  lobes  of  leaves  or 
other  bodies,  are  so  called.) 

Example  :     the     Argemone 
mexicana. 


Fig.  29. PALMATE. 


Fig.  30.  —  TRILOBATK. 


Fig.  31. LYRATE. 


Fig.  32. SINUATE. 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


Fig.  34. REPANDATE. 


Fig.  35.  —  AMPLEXICAULE. 


A' doubly  serrate  leaf — 
folium  duplicate- serratum — 
(Jig.  33). — (From  the  Latin, 
serra,  a  saw.)  Having  teeth 
like  a  saw:  the  larger  teeth 
being  notched  also  with  teeth. 
(See  fig.  48.) 

Fig.  33  shows  the  second- 
ary nerves  arising  from  the 
primary. 


A  repand  leaf — folium  repan- 
dum — (fig.  34). — (From  the  Latin, 
repandus,  bent.)  A  leaf  having  a 
margin  undulated,  and  unequally 
dilated,  is  so  called. 

Example :  the  Hydrocotyle. 

An  amplexicaule  leaf— -folium 
amplexicaule  —  (figure  35).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  amplecto,  I 
embrace,  and  caulis,  stem, 
stem  -  embracing.)  A  leaf  or 
bract  whose  base  projects  on 
each  side,  so  as  to  clasp  the 
stem  with  its  lobes. 

Example  :  the  Papaver  somni- 
ferum. 


Fig.  36.  —  CONNATE. 

A  connate,  or  double-perfoliate,  or  doubly  amplexicaule  leaf— 
folium  connatum  —  (fig.  36).  — (From  the  Latin,  con,  together, 
and  natus,  grown.)  Joined  together  at  the  base. 

Example :  the  Eupatorium  perfoliatum,  bone-set. 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


39 


A  perfoliate  leaf — folium  perfoliatum 
—  (fig-  37). —  (From  the  Latin,  per, 
through,  andybZit/m,  leaf.)  A  leaf  having 
the  stem  running  through  it.  The  annex- 
ed figure  (37)  is  an  illustration  of  acurvi- 
nerve  leaf. 

Example:  the  Uvularia  perfoliata,  or 
bell-wort. 


Fig.  37. PERFOLIATE. 


Fig.  33. PANDURATE. 


A  pandurate  leaf— folium  panduratum 
—  (fig-  38)-  —  (From  the  Latin,  pandus, 
bent  or  bowed  inward  in  the  middle.) 
Fiddle-shaped.  It  is  also  termed  panduri- 
form.  It  is  oblong,  broad  at  the  two 
extremities,  and  contracted  in  the  middle. 

Example :   Convolvulus  panduratus,  Virginia   Bindweed,   and 
Convolvulus  imperati,  native  of  Egypt,  Italy,  &c. 

A  runcinate  leaf — folium 
runcin'atum  —  (fig'  39).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  run'cina,  a 
large  saw,  to  saw  timber.) 

Example:    Leontodon    ta-  Jfc.  39.  -  RUNCINATK. 

ra  xacum,     common     dande- 
lion.    (Dandelion,  a  corruption  of  the  French,  dent  de  lion,  lion's 
tooth.) 

An  undulate  leaf — folium 
undulatum  —  (figure  40).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  undula,  a 
little  wave.)  Having  the  edges 
irregularly  waved. 

Example :  Asclepias  obtu- 
sifolia. 

A  crenate  leaf — folium 
crenatum  —  (figure  41).  — 
Having  rounded  teeth,  which 
are  not  directed  towards 
either  extremity  of  the  leaf, 
as  in  the  garden  pink,  ground 
ivy,  and  heart's  ease.  Fig.  41.  — CRENATE. 

Crenulate,  finely  crenate.     Some  leaves  are  doubly  crenate, 
that  is,  bicrenate. 

Example :  the  Quercus  prinus,  chestnut  oak  of  Pennsylvania. 


40 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


Fig.  44. SPATULA TE. 


A  lobate  leaf — folium  loba- 
turn — (Jig.  42). — Divided  more 
deeply  than  toothed  or  dentate, 
by  somewhat  obtuse  incisions  of 
an  uncertain  depth  :  each  portion 
is  termed  a  lobe.  The  number 
of  lobes  is  sometimes  specified. 

Example :  the  Liriodendron 
tulipifera,  or  tulip  tree;  also 
called  poplar,  canoe-wood,  sugar 
maple. 

A  reniform  leaf — folium  reni- 
forme  —  (Jig.  43).  —  (From  the 
Latin,  ren,  kidney ;  and  forma, 
form,  shape.)  Kidney-shaped.  A 
short,  broad,  round  leaf,  with  a 
sinus  or  hollow  at  the  base. 

This  figure  shows  the  tertiarv 
nerves  springing  from  the  second- 
ary. 

Example:  the  Asarum  cana 
dense,  colt's  foot. 


A  spatulate  leaf — folium  spatula- 
tnm  —  (Jig.  44).  —  (From  the  Latin, 
Spathvla,  a  broad  slice  or  knife  to 
spread  plasters.)  Oblong  or  obverselv 
ovate,  with  lower  part  much  attenuated. 

Example:  the  Poly  gala  lutea. 


A  peltate  leaf — folium  peltatum  — 
(fig.  45).  —  (From  the  Latin,  pelta  a 
shield.)  Where  the  petiole  is  inserted 
into  the  middle  of  the  leaf  on  the  under 
side,  like  the  arm  of  a  man  holding  n 
shield.  This  figure  (45)  is  also  an  illus- 
tration of  a  peltinerve  leaf. 

Example :  the  common  nasturtium. 


r,  45.  —  PELTATE. 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


41 


A  deltoid  leaf— folium 
deltoides  —  (fig.  48).— 
(From  the  Greek  letter 
A,  delta,  and  eidos,  re- 
semblance.) 

Example :  the  Populus 
nigra. 

A  dentate  leaf— folium 
dentatum  —  (fig>  47).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  dens,  a 
tooth.)  The  edge  having 
horizontal,  distant  teeth. 
This  term,  as  well  as  the 
following,  refers  only  to 
the  edge  or  margin  of  the 
leaf,  without  regard  to  its 
general  form. 

Example :  Populus  grandidentata. 

A  serrate  leaf— folium 
serratum  —  (fig.  48). — 
(From  the  Latin,  serra, 
saw.)  The  edge  being 
cut  into  notches,  like  saw 


Fig.  46.  —  DELTOID. 


Fig.  47. DENTATE. 


Fig.  48. SERRATE. 


Fig.  49. RHOMBOID. 


teeth,  ending  in  sharp  points,  which  incline  towards  the  apex  of 
the  leaf. 

The  nettle,  rose,  and  peach,  are  examples. 

A  rhomboid  leaf — folium  rhom- 
boideum — ($^.49). — Rhomb-shaped 
<C>-  A  rhomb,  in  geometry,  is  a 
four-sided  figure,  having  its  opposite 
sides  equal.  When  the  angles  are 
right  angles,  it  becomes  a  square. 

An  auriculate,  or  eared 
leaf — folium  auriculatum 
—  (fig-  50);  —  (From  the 
Latin,  auricula,  a  little 
ear.)  It  has  two  small 

rounded    lobes,    projecting  _  AURICULATE< 

at  the  base. 

The  Magnolia  auriculata   and   Rumex  acetosella    are  ex- 
amples. 

4* 


42 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


A  cordate  leaf— folium 
cordatum  —  (fig-  51 ).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  cor,  a 
heart.)  Heart  -  shaped, 
ovate,  with  two  rounded 
lobes  at  the  base. 

Example :    the    Pente- 

Fig.  51.  —  CORDATE.  deria  cordata,  and  com- 

mon morning-glory. 

Obcordate  is  the  cordate  reversed ;  the  sinus  and  lobes  being 
at  the  summit  instead  of  the  base  of  the  leaf.     (See  Jig.  20.) 

An  obovate  leaf — folium 
obovatum  —  (fg>  52).  —  (From 
the  Latin,  ovum,  egg.)  The  re- 
verse of  ovate,  egg-shaped,  with 
the  base  broader  than  the  apex ; 
and  length  greater  than  the 
Fig.  5-2.  —  OBOVATE.  breadth.  (See  Jig.  20.) 

Example :  the  Arbutus  uvi  ursi. 
An  elliptic  or  oval  leaf 
—folium  ellipticum — (fig. 
53). —  Having  a  regular 
outline,  resembling  an 
ellipse  :  the  curves  of  both 
ends  are  alike,  and  it  is 
longer  than  it  is  wide. 

Example :  the  Magnolia 

Fig.  53.— ELLIPTIC.  glauca,  common  magnolia 

or  beaver  tree. 


An  orbiculate  leaf  —  folium 
orbiculatum  —  (figvre  54).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  orbis,  an  orb.) 
Having  a  circular  outline. 

Example :  the  Glycine  to- 
mentosa. 


A  cuniate  or  cunieform  leaf — 
folium  cunieforme  —  (fg>  55).  — 
(From  the  Latin,  cuneus,  a  wedge.) 
Wedge-shaped.  Broad  and  obtuse  at 
the  summit,  and  tapering  gradually 
almost  to  a  point  at  the  base. 

Example  :  the  Quercus  nigra,  the 
true  black  oak  or  black  jack. 


Fig.  54.  —  ORBICULATE. 


Fig.  55.  —  CUNIEFORM. 


FORMS  OF  SIMPLE  LEAVES. 


A  partite  leaf — folium 
partitum,  is  one  deeply 
divided  nearly  to  the  base, 
as  Helleborus  viridis :  and 
according  to  the  number  of 
its  divisions  it  is  bipartite, 
tripartite,  or  multipartite. 

A  multipartite  leaf  — 
folium  multipartitum  — 
(figure  56).  — '•  (From  the 
Latin,  multus,  many ;  and 
pars,  part — much  divided.) 
Having  very  deep  and  very  distinct  divisions. 


Fig.  56. MULTIPARTITE. 


A  laciniate  leaf — folium  laciniatum 
— (fig*  57). — (From  the  Latin,  lacinia, 
a  lappet;  a  separate  fold  of  a  garment.) 
Divided  by  deep  incisions ;  the  lacinise  or 
parts  being  quite  slender  and  numerous. 

Examples :  the  Dentaria  laciniata, 
and  the  Rudbeckia  laciniata.  Also, 
the  lower  leaves  of  the  Clematis  flam- 
mula,  sweet  virgin's  bower.  . 


Fig.  57.  —  LACINIATE. 

EXAMPLES  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 

Compound  leaves  may  be  referred  to  two  classes  or  divisions ; 
one  containing  digitate,  and  the  other  pinnate  leaves,  accordingly 
as  they  are  supposed  to  resemble  fingers  (digitus)  or  feathered 
stems  (pinnatus).  First,  of  digitate  leaves  : 


A  conjugate  or  binate  leaf — (Jig-  58). — 
(Conjugate,  from  the  Latin,  conjugatum, 
which  is  formed  from  con,  together,  and 
jugum,  a  yoke,  yoked  together.  Binate, 
from  the  Latin,  bis,  two,  and  natus,  grown.) 
When  a  common  petiole  bears  two  leaflets  on 
its  summit. 


Fig.  58.  —  CONJUGATE. 


44 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


Fig.  59. TERNATE. 


A  ternate  leaf — folium  terna- 
turn — (Jig.  59). — (From  the  Latin, 
ternus,  three  and  three.)  When 
three  leaflets  arise  from  one 
petiole. 

Example:  the  Trifolium  pra- 
tense,  red  clover. 

Biternate,  twice  three  leaved : 
the  petiole  divided  into  three 
parts,  and  each  part  bearing  three 
leaflets. 

Triternate,  three  times  three 
leaved :  a  common  petiole  divided 
into  three  parts,  and  each  of  these  parts  subdivided  into  three, 
and  each  subdivision  bearing  three  leaflets,  as  in  the  wind  flower. 


A  ternate  leaf,  which  is  also 
doubly  serrate  (Jig.  60),  that 
is,  folium  ternatum,  foliis  du- 
plicato-serratis, — a  ternate  leaf, 
with  doubly  serrate  leaflets, 
as  in  Indian  physic,  —  Spir&a 
trifoliata. 


Fig.  60. TERNATE. 


A     quaternate     leaf — folium 
quaternatum — (Jig.  61). —  (From 
the  Latin,  quatcr,  four.)     Having 
four  leaflets  growing  from  a  com 
mon  petiole  or  leaf-stalk. 


Fig.  61. —  QUATERNATE. 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


45 


A  quinquefoliate  or  quinate 
— folium  quinquefoliatum 
— (fig. 62). — (From  the  Latin, 
qmnque,  five,  and  folium,  leaf.) 
Having  five  leaflets  growing 
from  one  common  petiole. 

Example  :  ginseng — Panax 
quinqucfolium. —  Panax  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  pan,  all, 
and  akos,  a  reaiedy;  a  remedy 
for  all  things.  It  is  an  almost 
universal  medicine  among  the 
Tartars  and  Chinese,  and  ac- 
cording to  them,  it  is  capable 
of  relieving  iatigue  both  of 
body  and  min</.  It  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  where  it  is 
not  esteemed  as  a  medicine. 


Fig.  62. QUINCUTEFOLIAm 


A  digitate  leaf — folium  digita- 
tum  —  (fig.  63),  —  composed  of 
seven  leaflets,  an  example  of  which 
is  afforded  in  the  perennial  lupin, 
which  is  common  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Philadelphia.  —  (Digi- 
tate, from  the  Latin,  digitus,  a 
finger.)  .  Compared  to  the  spread 
fingers  of  a  hand.  When  several 
leaflets  arise  from  the  very  sum- 
mit of  the  petiole,  as  in  the  horse- 
chestnut  tree,  and  high  blackberry. 


Fig.  63.  —  DIGITATE. 


T/ie  second  division  of  compound  leaves,  called  pinnate. 


A  pinnate  leaf — folium  pinnatum — (Jig.  64). — 
(From  the  Latin,  pinnatus,  winged  or  feathered.) 
Having  leaflets  arranged  along  each  side  of  a  com- 
mon petiole,  like  the  feather  of  a  quill. 


Fig.  64. 

PINNATE. 


46 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


A  bipinnate  leaf — folium 
bipinnatu?n  —  (fig.  65),  — 
as  that  of  the  mimosa  far- 
nesiana.  Doubly  winged : 
a  common  petiole  bearing 
pinnate  leaves  on  each  one 
of  its  sides.  Most  of  the 
Aca'cia  tribe  have  bipinnate 
leaves. 

(Bipinnate:  :rom  the  Latin, 
bis,  two ;  and  -pinna^  wing, 
— two- winged.) 


Fig.  65. —  BiriNNATE. 


A  bipinnate  leaf — (fig. 
66), — folium  bipinnatum. 
We  have  an  example  of 
leaves  of  thfs  kind  in  the 
Pride  of  China,  —  Melia 
azederach. 

Here  the  leaflets  of  the 
secondary  petiole  are  un- 
equally pinnate.  (Sec  fig. 
70.)  ' 


Fig.  66. BIPINNATE. 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


47 


Fig,  67. —  TRIPINNATE. HEMLOCK. 

A  tripinnate  leaf — folium  tripinnatum — (fig.  67).  —  (Frorn 
*he  Latin,  tres,  three ;  and  pinna,  wing.)  Coni'um  macula- 
turn, —  common  hemlock.  Common  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States.  When  the  common  petiole  has  bipirmate  leaves 
on  each  side. 


A  pinnate  leaf,  with  Ujugate  leaves  — 
(fig'  68).  —  Folium  pinnatum  ;  foliolis 
bijugis  (from  the  Latin,  bis,  two;  and 
jugum,  yoke),  formed  of  two  pairs  of 
leaflets,  as  seen  in  the  Cassia  absus,  of 
India  and  Egypt. 


Fig.  68.— 


48 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


An  abruptly  pinnate  leaf  (Jig.  69).  When 
the  petiole  of  a  winged  leaf  ends  without  a 
leaflet  or  tendril,  as  in  the  American  senna,  it 
is  abruptly  pinnate. 

When  the  leaflets  of  the  opposite  sides 
alternate,  it  is  alternately  pinnate  ;  and  when 
the  leaflets  are  alternately  large  and  small,  it 
is  interruptedly  pinnate. 

When  the  leaflets  are  opposite  or  in  pairs, 
as  in  the  annexed  figure  (69),  it  is  oppositely 
pinnate.  J 


Fig.  69. 

ABRUPTLY    PINNA1 


An  unequally  pinnate  leaf 
— folium  impari-pinnatum 
— (jig.  70).  Example:  the 
she'll- bark  hickory. 

When  a  pinnate  or  wing- 
ed leuf  is  terminated  by  a 
single  leaflet,  as  roses,  &c., 
it  is  unequally  pinnate,  be- 
cause the  pinnce  or  leaflets 
are  not  of  an  even  or  equal 
number. 

When  the  leaflets  are  cut 
in  fine  divaricated  segments, 
embracing  the  footstalk,  we 
have  the  verticillato-pinnate 
leaf. 

The  lyrato -pinnate,  "  in  a 
lyrate  manner,  having  the 
terminal  leaflet  largest,  and 
the  rest  gradually  smaller, 
as  they  approach  the  base, 
like  Erysimum  prcecox^anL], 
with  intermediate  smaller  leaflets,  Geum  rivale ;  also,  the  com- 
mon turnip. 

"  Such  leaves  are  usually  denominated  lyrate  in  common  with 
those  properly  so  called  (whose  shape  is  simple,  and  not  formed 
of  separate  leaflets);  nor  is  this  from  inaccuracy  in  botanical 
writers.  The  reason  is,  that  these  t\vo  kinds  of  leaves,  however 


Fig.  70. UNEQUALLY  PINNATE. 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


49 


distinct  in  theory,  are  of  all  leaves 
most  liable  to  run  into  each  other, 
even  on  the  same  plant." — Smith. 


A  cir'roso-pinnate  leaf— folium 
cirroso-pinnatum —  (fig-  71). — 
(From  the  Latin,  cir'rus,  a  tendril, 
a  climber.) 

Example :  the  tamarind  tree, 
Tamarindus  Indica. 

In  this  form  of  leaf,  a  tendril 
supplies  the  place  of  the  odd  leaflet 
(as  in  the  pea  and  vetch  tribe),  con- 
stituting the  remarkable  difference 
between  it  and  the  unequally  pin- 
nate leaf  (Jig.  70). 


Fig.  71.  — CIR'ROSO  PINNATE. 


A  pedate  leaf — folium  peda- 
tum  —  (fig.  72).  —  (From  the 
Latin,  pes,  in  the  genitive  case, 
pedis,  foot.)  A  compound  leaf, 
the  divisions  of  which  give  it  a 
resemblance  to  a  foot  with  out- 
spread toes.  This  is  an  exam- 
ple of  the  pedalinerve  leaf  (see 
page  39),  in  which  there  is  no 
decided  midrib,  but  the  vessels 
diverge  in  two  strong  lateral 
nerves,  from  which  branches 
are  given  off,  on  that  side  only 
which  is  towards  the  apex  of  the 
leaf. 

Example :  the  Helleborus  f<x- 
tidus. 


Fig.  72.  —  PEDATE. 


FORMS  OF  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


A  pedate  leaf,  with 
compound  leaflets  — 
folium  pedatum  ;  — 
foliis  composilis. 

Example:  I  he  Maid- 
en hair  —  Adiantum 
pedatum.  A  very  com- 
mon plant  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Philadel- 
phia. 


Fig.  73. —  PEDATE. 

a  b 

The  most  singular  of 
all  the  various  leaves,  are 
those  of  the  pitcher  plants. 
The  pitcher  of  the  Nepen- 
thes (74,  c)  is  provided  with 
a  perfect  lid  or  cover,  which 
is  closed  in  dry  weather,  as 
if  to  prevent  evaporation, 
and  open  when  it  is  rainy 
or  damp.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested, that  these  pitchers 
were  designed  as  reservoirs 
in  which  water  is  stored 
for  the  occasional  use  of 
the  plant  in  extremely  dry 
weather. 

When  the  petiole  be- 
comes dilated  and  hollowed 
out  at  its  upper  end,  the 
lamina  being  articulated  with  and  closing  up  its  orifice,  as  in 
Sarracenia  (fig.  74,  a),  and  Nepenthes  (fig-  74,  c),  it  is  called 
a  pitcher,  or  a&cidium  ;  if  it  is  enclosed  and  is  a  mere  sac,  as  in 
Utricularia  (fig.  74,  6),  it  is  called  ampulla. 

The  surface  of  a  leaf  may  be  ribbed  or  nerved,  having  fine  elevations, 
running  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  without  branching  ;  or 

Veined,  having  prominent  divisions  near  the  base,  and  finer  and  smaller 
as  they  extend  over  the  leaf,  as  in  the  mullein ;  or 

Wrinkled,  rvgose,  rough,  or  corrugated,  like  the  leaf  of  the  sage  ;  or 


Fig.  74. LEAVES  OF  PITCHER  PLANTS. 


EXHALATION.  51 


Plicate  (plaited),  having  the  surface  formed  into  ridges  and  channels,  by 
the  alternate  rising  and  sinking  of  the  nerves  of  the  leaf;  or 

Smooth,  when  without  wrinkles  or  ribs ;  or 

Villose,  or  velvety,  when  covered  by  soft  down  or  hairs. 

Besides  the  general  form,  the  character  of  the  margin,  and  surface  of 
leaves,  their  position  is  also  described.  When  upright,  and  the  leaf  forms 
a  very  acute  angle  with  the  stem,  it  is  erect.  When  they  are  at  right 
angles  with  the  stems,  and  parallel  with  the  horizon,  they  are  horizontal* 
When  the  apex  of  the  leaf  hangs  lower  than  the  insertion  of  the  petiole,  it 
is  reclined.  When  the  base  of  the  leaf  is  turned  in  one  direction,  and  the 
apex  in  another,  that  is,  twisted,  it  is  oblique. 

Radical  leaves  are  those  which  grow  very  near  to  the  root. 

When  leaves  arise  one  after  the  other  from  opposite  sides  of  the  stem, 
they  are  alternate ;  but  when  they  arise,  on  the  same  line,  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  stem,  they  are  opposite. 

When  they  grow  in  a  circle  round  a  stem,  they  are  verticillate  (whorled) 
or  stellate. 

EXHALATION. 

30.  When  treating  of  absorption,  we  saw  that  vascular  plants 
pump  up,  by  their  roots,  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  hold- 
ing different  matters  in  solution,  and  that  this  liquid  rises  through 
the  stem  to  reach  the  leaves.  But  all  the  water  thus  absorbed 
does  not  remain  in  the  interior  of  the  plant,  and  a  great  part  is 
dissipated  in  the  form  of  vapour.  To  satisfy  ourselves  on  this 
point,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  in  a  perfectly  dry  glass  jar, 
the  leafy  stem  of  a  vegetating  plant,  and  expose  the  whole  to  the 
sun  ;  we  soon  discover  little  drops  which  arrange  themselves  on 
the  parietes  of  the  jar.  By  weighing  plants  immediately  after 
they  have  been  watered,  and  weighing  them  again  some  time 
afterwards,  we  obtain  proof  of  this  loss,  and  we  may  exactly 
estimate  the  quantity  of  water  exhaled  ;  it  was  found,  by  an, 
experiment  of  this  kind,  that  a  cabbage  lost  by  evaporation  nine- 
teen ounces  of  water  a  day,  and  a  helianthus  (from  the  Greek, 
elios,  the  sun,  and  anthos,  flower)  or  sunflower  loses  even  a  more 
considerable  quantity  in  form  of  vapour. 

.31.  A  small  part  of  the  water  thus  expelled,  evaporates  through 
the  tissue  which  constitutes  the  surface  of  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
as  well  after  death  as  during  life ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  stem,  fruit,  tubercles,  and  flowers  terminate  their  existence 
by  drying,  when  the  place  in  which  they  may  be  is  not  very 
damp.  But  the  greatest  quantity  of  water  is  expelled  through 
the  leaves  of  the  living  plant,  and  this  exhalation  only  takes 
place,  while  the  plant  is  alive,  and  when  the  influence  of  light 

30.  What  becomes  of  the  water  absorbed  by  the  roots  ?     How  is  it  ascer- 
tained that   plants  exhale  water  in  form  of  vapour  ?     What  quantity  of 
water  does  a  cabbage  exhale  ? 

31.  What  parts  of  plants  are  seats  of  exhalation  ?     When  does  exhalation 
take  place?    What  influences  exhalation?    What  description  of  plants 
exhale  least? 


52  EXHALATION.  —  RESPIRATION. 

causes  the  stomata  to  open.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
quantity  of  water  thus  exhaled  is  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of 
the  leafy  surface  of  the  plant,  and  the  number  of  stomata  ;  thus, 
fleshy  plants,  which  have  but  few  stomata,  lose  very  little  by 
aqueous  exhalation. 

32.  Light,  as  we  have  said,  has  the  property  of  causing  the 
stomaia  to  open,  but  these  orifices  close  when  the  plant  is  placed 
in  the  dark.     During  the  night,  plants  lose  very  little  by  evapora- 
tion ;  and  it  is  known  that  the  best  way  of  preserving  a  bouquet 
as  fresh  as  possible,  is  to  put  it  in  an  obscure  place,  or  at  least 
shelter  it  from  the  light  of  the  sun. 

33.  Exhalation  is  more  active  in  dry  warm  air,  than  when  the 
atmosphere  is  cold  and  damp  ;  and  it  takes  place  more  actively 
in  young  leaves,  than  in  those  of  which  the  surface  has  been 
hardened  by  age.     The  water  that  thus  escapes  is  almost  pure, 
and  it  is  estimated  that,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  is  equal 
to    about  two-thirds  of  the  quantity  of  liquid    absorbed  by  the 
roots.     Sometimes  this  exhalation  becomes  even  more  abundant 
than  absorption,  and  causes  the  death  of  the  plant ;  this  often 
happens  when  we  transplant  a  tree  in  spring,  without  taking  suf- 
ficient care  to  lop  the  branches,  for  by  taking  it  from  the  earth 
we  destroy  a  great  many  radicles  of  the  root,  and  absorption  is 
consequently  less  active ;  in  order  to  proportion  the  exhalation  to 
this  enfeebled  absorption,  gardeners  leave  but  a  small  number  of 
leaves  on  the  summit  of  the  stem. 

RESPIRATION. 

34.  Plants  cannot  live  when  deprived  of  air,  and  are,  just  as 
much  as  animals,  under  the  necessity  of  constant  respiration  ; 
but  their  respiration  is  carried  on  in  a  different  manner  from  that 
of  animals. 

35.  All  parts  of  the  plant,  root,  stem,  and  flowers,  as  well  as 
the  leaves,  continually  absorb  a  certain  quantity  of  ox'ygen  from 
the  air,  which  combines  with  the  car'bonous  particles  of  the  sap, 
and  thus  forms  carbo'nic  acid  ;  but  this  carbo'nic   acid  is   not 
expelled  as  in  animals,  but  serves  for  nutrition. 

[Before  we  proceed  further,  let  us  endeavour  to  obtain  clear  notions  of  the 
meaning  of  the  words  ox'ygf.n  and  carbo'nic  acid. 

32.  Why  are  we  recommended  to  put  a  bouquet  in  the  dark  for  preser- 
vation ? 

33.  What  condition  of  the  atmosphere  is  most  favourable  to  exhalation  ? 
What  is  the  character  of  the  water  exhaled  by  plants  ?     What  happens  if 
exhalation  is  greater  than  absorption?     Why  do  gardeners  carefully  lop 
trees  that  are  transplanted  ? 

34.  Do  plants  breathe? 

35.  What  parts  of  plants  absorb  ox'ygen  ?    What  becomes  of  the  ox'ygep 
absorbed  ?     What  is  the  use  of  carbo'nic  acid  to  plants  7 


RESPIRATION.  53 


The  air  we  breathe  (called  atmospheric  air)  is  a  compound  of  about  one 
part  of  ox'ygen  gas  to  four  parts  of  ni'trogen  gas,  and  a  very  much  smaller 
proportion  of  carbo'nic  acid  gas,  together  with  some  watery  vapour. 

Ox'ygen  and  ni'trogen  are  simple  substances,  that  is,  chemists  have  not 
been  able  to  decompose  them  ;  but  carbonic  acid  gas  is  a  compound  sub- 
stance,  that  is,  it  consists  of  more  than  one  material  or  substance. 

This  name,  ox'ygen,  is  formed  from  the  Greek,  oxus,  acid,  and  geinomai, 
I  beget,  and  was  so  called  because  it  was  believed,  without  it,  there  could 
be  no  acid.  Although  there  are  acids  which  contain  no  ox'ygen,  we  know- 
that  without  its  presence  every  living  thing,  animal  or  plant,  would  die,  and 
all  fire  would  be  extinguished.  It  is  indispensable  to  respiration  and  com- 
bustion, j 

The  word  ni'trogen  was  formed  from  the  Greek,  nitron,  nitre,  and 
geinomai,  I  beget,  because  it  was  discovered  to  be  one  of  the  essential  con- 
stituents of  nitre,  and  also  of  nitric  acid.  It  was  also  called  azote  (from  </, 
privative,  and  zoe,  life),  because  it  would  not  support  animal  life. 

Carbo'nic  acid  consists  of  carbon  and  ox'ygen. 

Carbon  (from  the  Latin,  carbo,  coal)  is  the  name  of  a  simple  substance 
or  element.  It  occurs  naturally  in  the  form  of  the  diamond  (which  is  pure 
carbon),  of  plumbago  or  black-lead,  anthracite  and  bituminous  coals ;  it  is 
an  elementary  constituent  of  all  wood  ;  it  seems  to  be  the  true  food  of  plants, 
without  which  they  die.  Lamp-black  and  charcoal  are  forms  of  impure 
carbon.  The  chief  action  of  vegetable  organization  is  to  obtain  and  form 
carbon. 

Carbo'nic  acid  exists  in  the  atmosphere  as  the  product  of  combustion,  and 
of  the  respiration  of  animals ;  the  frothing  of  beer,  and  the  sparkling  of 
champagne  and  "  mineral  water,"  depend  on  its  presence.] 

36.  The  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of  plants  also  absorb 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  contained  in  the  air,  and  by  the  process  of 
respiration,  this  fluid,  as  well  as  the  carbonic  acid  formed  in  the 
interior  of  the  plant,  is  decomposed  ;  its  carbon  remains  in  the 
tissue  of  the  plant,  and  nourishes  it,  while  the  oxygen  is  thrown 
off  and  mingles  with  the  atmosphere. 

37.  We  now  see  that  the  relations  of  plants  with  the  air  are 
more  complicated*  than  those  of  animals  with   the    same   fluid. 
The  latter  absorb  oxygen,  and  in  its  place  exhale  carbo'nic  acid ; 
plants  absorb  ox'ygen  and  carbo'nic  acid,  and  exhale  the  ox'ygen 
arising  either  from  the  quantity  of  this  gas  previously  absorbed, 
or  from  the  decomposition  of  the  carbo'nic  acid  derived  from  the 
atmosphere. 

38.  In  general  it  is  the  last  phenomenon,  that  is,  the  absorp* 
tion  of  carbonic  acid,  its  decomposition  and  the  exhalation  of 
ox'ygen,  that  is  designated    under  the  name  of  respiration  of 
plants.     Its  effect,  as  we  see,  is  to  destroy  the  carbo'nic  acid, 


36.  What  parts  of  plants  absorb  carbo'nic  acid  gas  from  the  atmospheric 
air  ?     What  becomes  of  the  constituent  elements  of  the  carbo'nic  acid  of 
plants  ? 

37.  How  does  the  respiration  of  animals  differ  from  that  of  plants  ? 

38.  What  constitutes  the  respiration  of  plants  ?     What  is  the  effect  of 
the  respiration  of  plants  ?    How  does  it  purify  the  atmosphere  ? 

5* 


54  RESPIRATION. 


which  the  respiration  of  animals  is  unceasingly  diffusing  through 
the  air,  and  consequently  to  purify  the  atmosphere. 

39.  The  green  parts  alone  possess  the  property  of  decompos- 
ing carbo'nic  acid  in  this  way,  and  they  cannot  effect  this  decom- 
position without  the  direct  influence  of  the   light   of  the  sun. 
Thus,  a  plant  which  is  put  in  an  obscure  place  ceases  to  respire, 
languishes,  bleaches,  and  dies,  after  a  shorter  or  longer  time. 

40.  Consequently,  the  leaves  are  the  principal  seat  of  respira- 
tion, and  this  function  is  only  carried  on  during  the  day. 

41.  It  is  easy  to  demonstrate  the  influence  of  light  upon  the 
respiration  of  plants  ;  a  simple  experiment  is  sufficient  to  do  this : 
if  we  place  leaves  in  water  containing  a  small  quantity  of  car- 
bo'nic acid  in  solution,  and  expose  them  to  the  sun,  we  see  bub- 
bles of  air  rise  from  them ;  but  if  we  place  them  in  the  shade, 
this  disengagement  of  gas  is  arrested. 

42.  In  leaves  exposed  to  the  air,  the  absorption  of  carbo'nic 
acid  takes  place  chiefly  through  the  stomata,  and  this  fluid  acts 
upon  the  sap  in  the  interior  of  the  cavities  which  exist  in  the 
paren'chyma  of  the  leaf,  and  abandons  its  carbon  lo  pass  to  the 
state  of  free  ox'ygen.     The  intercellular  passages  (meatus)  of 
the   leaves   consequently  perform,  in  the  respiration  of  plants, 
functions  analogous  to  those  of  the  pulmonary  cells  in  terres- 
trial animals  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  aquatic  plants,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  submerged,  there  are  no  similar  cavities,  and 
respiration  is  carried  on  by  the  surface  of  the  leaves,  just  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  skin  or  projecting  branchiae  perform   this 
function  in  aquatic  animals. 

43.  During  the  night,  the  leaves,  instead  of  purifying  the  air, 
absorb  ox'ygen,  and  consequently  contribute  towards  its  vitiation. 
For  this  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  odour  they  exhale, 
it  is  often  dangerous  to  place  plants  or  even  bouquets  of  flowers 
in  sleeping  apartments. 

44.  The  absorption  of  ox'ygen  by  the  parts  of  plants  that  are 
not  green  is  feeble,  but  takes  place  by  day  as  well  as  by  night, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  all  plants.     It  is  because  roots 
do  not  obtain  the  air  which  they  require  that  they  die,  when  too 
deeply  buried  ;  and  it  is  for  the  same  reason  that  a  seed  will  not 
germinate  when  removed  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 

39.  Do  all  parts  of  a  plant  decompose  carbo'nic  acid  ?     Do  plants  decom- 
pose carbo'nic  acid  under  all  circumstances  ? 

40.  Do  plants  respire  at  all  times  ? 

41.  How  is  it  shown  that  light  influences  the  respiration  of  plants? 

42.  In  what  part  of  the  plant  does  the  carbo'nic  acid  act  on  the  sap  ? 
What  is  remarkable  in  the  respiration  of  aquatic  plants  ? 

43.  Why  is  it  improper  to  keep  plants  in  apartments  in  which  we  sleep  ? 

44.  Why  do  roots  and  seeds  die  when  too  deeply  buried  ? 


DESCENDING  SAP.  55 


OF  THE  USE  AND  MODE  OF  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE 
NUTRITIVE  JUICES. 

45.  The  sap  elaborated  in  the  leaves,  as  we  have  seen,  again 
descends  to  other  parts  of  the  plant,  and  constitutes  the  nutritive 
juice  by  the  aid  of  which  its  growth  is  effected. 

46.  It  is  easy  to  be  convinced  that  the  nutritive  juices  of  plants 
are  formed  in  the  leaves ;  for  if  we  strip  a  tree  of  all  its  leaves, 
it  will  cease  to  grow  until  it  is  furnished  anew  with  these  organs; 
and  farmers  who  cultivate  mulberries  for  feeding  silkworms  have 
remarked  that  the  growth  of  the  trees  is  less  in  proportion  to  the 
frequency  of  stripping  them  of  their  leaves. 

47.  The  movement  of  the  nutritive  juice  (that  is,  the  descend- 
ing sap)  is  slow,  and  always  takes  place  from  the  leaves,  towards 
the  roots,  whatever  may  be  the  position  of  the  branches  that  this 
liquid  traverses. 

48.  The  route  followed  by  the  descending  sap  is  not  the  same 
as  that  by  which  the  sap  rises  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves;  in- 
stead of  traversing  the  ligneous  layers,  it  descends  chiefly  through 
the  substance  of  the  bark. 

49.  The  following  experiment  proves  that  it  is  the  descending 
sap  which  especially  serves  for  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  and  that 
this  same  sap  moves  in  the  interior  of  the  bark.     If  we  remove 
from  a  branch  or  the  trunk  of  an  ex'ogenous  tree,  a  circular  strip 
of  bark,  we  prevent  the  sap  that  descends  from  the  leaves  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  plant  from  continuing  its  route,  and,  in  fact,  we 
see  that  the  portion  of  the  stem  which  is  below  this  annular  or 
ring-like  section,  ceases  to  grow,  while  the  part  situate   above 
profits  more  than  is  usual,  and  swells  out  on  the  upper  margin 
of  the  wound,  so  as  to  form  a  ring.     The  same  thing  happens 
when  we  surround  a  branch  by  a  very  tightly  drawn  cord ;  for 
in  this  way  we  may  also  arrest  the  descending  sap,  and  the  parts 
where  this  juice  accumulates  are  benefited  at  the  expense  of  those 
situated  below. 


45.  What  becomes  of  the  sap  that  is  elaborated  in  the  leaves  ?  (Elaborate: 
from  the  Latin,  labora're,  to  work.     The  word  is  employed  to  signify  the 
act  of  living  organs   upon    substances  capable  of  assimilation,  by  which 
nutritive  matter  is  separated  and  appropriated.     The  elaboration  of  food  in 
the  stomach  produces  chyme.) 

46.  What  proof  is  there  that  the  nutritive  juice  of  plants  is  formed  in 
the  leaves  ? 

47.  Is  the  movement  of  the  nutritive  juice  rapid  ?     In  what  direction 
does  it  flow  ? 

48.  What  is  the  route  of  the  descending  sap  ? 

49.  How  do  you  prove  that  the  descending  sap  is  the  nutritive  juice  of 
plants,  and  that  it  moves  through  the  substance  of  the  bark  ?  v 


66  SECRETION. 


50.  For  this  reason  gardeners  sometimes  make   annular  in- 
cisions through  the  whole  thickness  of  the  bark  around  a  branch 
filled  with  fruit,  so  as  to  retain  the  nutritive  juice,  and  augment 
the  size  of  the  fruit. 

51.  The  greater  part  of  the  descending  sap  is  found,  as  we 
have  before  stated,  in  the  bark ;  but  it  appears  that  this  liquid 
also  traverses  the  young  layers  of  the  albur'num,  and  it  is  by  its 
action  that  we  explain  the  transformation  of  this  albur'num  into 
perfect  wood  or  dura' men.     (Dura' men  :  Latin,  hardening.) 

52.  The  descending  sap  appears  to  be  chiefly  composed  of 
water  holding  gum  and  some  other  substances  in  solution.     It 
must  be   regarded  as  the  chief  source  from  which   the   plant 
derives  the  materials  composing;  1st,  the  excreted  products;  2d, 
the  peculiar  juices  secreted  in  the  different  organs  and  designed 
to  remain  in  the  interior  of  the  plant ;  3d,  the  new  tissues.     We 
shall  now  study  these  phenomena  successively  in  order. 

OF  SECRETIONS. 

53.  Plants,  as  well  as  animals,  form,  in  certain  parts  of  their 
bodies,  peculiar  liquids,  which  differ  from  the  generally  diffused 
juices  ;  and  it  is  to  the  process  by  which  these  peculiar  liquids 
are  formed,  as  well  as  to  the  liquids  themselves,  that  we  give  the 
name  of  secretion* 

54.  The  matters  secreted  may  be  thrown  out  or  expelled,  or 
they  may  be  destined  to  remain  in  the  interior  of  the  plant,  and 
subserve  the  purposes  of  nutrition  or  some  other  function. 

55.  The  matters  that  plants  excrete  in  this  way  are  very  vari- 
ous.    A  great  many  plants  produce  in  reservoirs,  situate  near 
the  external   surface,  volatile  oils  that  evaporate  through  their 
tissue  and  diffuse  themselves  through  the  air  ;  the  odour  of  flowers 
and  also  of  certain  leaves  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  this 
exhalation ;  and  it  is  to  an  emanation  of  this  kind  that  is  due 

*  Secretion  :  from  the  Latin,  secer'nere,  to  separate.  The  process  by 
which  organic  structure  is  enabled  to  separate,  from  the  fluids  circulating 
in  it,  other  different  fluids.  The  function  of  secretion  is  usually  performed 
by  glands,  and  each  gland  secretes  a  peculiar  fluid  according  to  its  struc- 
ture ;  for  example,  the  liver  secretes  bile,  that  is,  it  separates  from  the  blood 
circulating  in  the  liver,  the  materials  which  it  forms  into  bile  ;  the  sali'vary 
glands  secrete  saliva,  and  the  mammary  glands  in  females,  secrete  milk,  &-c. 
Now,  bile,  saliva,  and  milk,  are  also  termed  secretions. 

50.  How  may  the  size  of  fruit  be  augmented  ? 

51.  Does  the  descending  sap  pass  through  any  other  part  than  the  bark  ? 

52.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  the  descending  sap  ? 

53.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  secretion  ? 

54.  What  becomes  of  the  secretions  ? 

55.  Mention  some  of  the  various  secretions  of  plants. 


SECRETIONS.  57 


a  singular  phenomenon  presented  by  a  plant  named  Fraxinella, 
which  in  hot  days  exhales  an  essential  oil  in  such  abundance, 
that  if  it  be  approached  with  a  light,  the  vapour  with  which  the 
plant  is  surrounded  takes  fire  and  burns,  like  that  we  force  out 
of  an  orange  or  lemon  skin  by  pressure,  into  the  flame  of  a  can- 
dle.- Other  plants  secrete  a  caustic  juice,  which  is  frequently 
poured  out  through  hollow  hairs,  and  thus  produces  a  lively  irri- 
tation at  the  bottom  of  punctures  made  by  these  hairs.  The 
nettle  is  an  example  of  this  kind.  Again  we  have  wax  secreted 
by  the  leaves  or  epidermis  of  young  branches  and  afterwards 
expelled ;  and  we  have  also  produced  in  this  way  gluey,  acid, 
saline,  sugary,  and  other  secretions. 

56.  These  excretions*  are  formed  by  the  roots  as  well  as  by 
the  leaves ;  and  as  the  matters  thus  expelled  are  of  a  nature  that 
is  injurious   to  the  plants  which  produce  them,  we  understand 
through  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  why  plants  of  the  same  species 
do  not  flourish  when  kept  for  a  long  time  in  the  same  soil ;  for 
the  matters  expelled  by  the  roots  are  deposited  in  the  earth  sur- 
rounding them,  and  are  again  absorbed  by  the  plants  growing  in 
it.     But  the  matters  expelled  by  one  plant  may  often  be  suitable 
nourishment  for  a  plant  of  another  species,  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  the  ground  often  becomes  fitted  for  certain  culture  when  it 
has  been  previously  made  to  produce  plants  in  which  the  excretion 
by  the  roots  is  abundant.     The  art  of  assolement  or  succession 
of  crops,  so  important  in  agriculture,  is  chiefly  based  upon  the 
results  depending  on  this  excretion  by  the  roots.     We  give  the 
name  of  assolement  to  the  succession  in  the  same  soil  of  different 
crops,  combined  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  as  largely  as 
possible ;   and   we   say   triennial,  quatrennial   assolement,  &c., 
according  as  the  cultivation  of  the  same  plant  recurs  every  three, 
every  four  years,  &c. 

57.  The  liquids  secreted  by  plants  and  designed  to  remain  in 
the  interior  of  their  organs  are  designated   under  the  name  of 
proper  juices  ;  if  they  escape  externally,  it  is  altogether  by  acci- 
dent, and  their  production  appears  to  be  useful  to  the  health  of 
the  plant  that  forms  them.     These  juices  are  sometimes  milky, 

*  [Excretion :  from  the  Latin  excer'nerc,  to  separate  from.  The  throwing 
off  those  matters  which  are  supposed  to  be  useless  or  injurious  to  organic 
life,  as  the  perspiration  in  animals.  An  excretion  is  a  secretion  that  is 
thrown  out  of  a  plant  or  animal  because  useless  to  its  internal  well-being.] 


56.  Do  other  parts  than  the  leaves  of  plants  form  excretions  ?     Why  is 
it  that  farmers  do  not  plant  the  same  plant  in  the  same  field,  year  after 
year  ?     What  is  meant  by  excretion  ? 

57.  What  are  proper  juices  ?    What  are  their  characters  ? 


58  SECRETIONS. 


sometimes  resinous,  sometimes  composed  of  essential  oils,  and  at 
other  times  formed  of  fatty  matters. 

58.  The  milky  juices  are  chiefly  found  in  the  bark,  and  appear 
to  constitute  the  liquid  we  see  circulating  in  the  vessels  of  the 
latex,  in  a  great  number  of  plants.     The  white  liquid  that  runs 
from  the  fig  tree  when  it  is  cut,  opium,  caoutchouc  (India  rubber), 
&c.,  are  juices  belonging  to  this  class. 

59.  The  resinous  juices  are  very  common  in  the  bark,  and  are 
also  met  with  in  other  parts  of  the  stem ;  they  are  formed  in 
little  masses  which  become  united  together,  and  descend  by  their 
own  weight  in  the  tissue  of  the  plant.     Sometimes  these  juices 
are  so  abundant  that,  by  making  an  incision  in  a  tree,  we  cause 
a  stream  to  flow  out  of  it,  and  in  this  way  collect  considerable 
quantities  of  its  proper  juices  ;  as  we  see  in  pine  and  fir  trees. 

60.  The  essential  or  volatile  oils  are  contained  in   cells  or 
vesicles,  and  are  found  in  the  foliacious  and  cortical  parts  of 
plants.    And  the  proper  juices  constituted  of  fatty  oils  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  seeds. 

61.  The  solid  matter,  found  in  the  elongated  cells  of  the  wood, 
and  on  this  account  called    lignin  (from  the  Latin,  lignum, 
wood),  may  also  be  considered  as  being  the  product  of  a  species 
of  secretion,  as  well  as  the  fecula,  which  is  produced  in  great 
abundance  in  certain  parts  of  plants,  seemingly  forming  deposits 
of  nutritive  matter,  destined  at  a  future  time  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  plant.     This  last  substance  has  the  appearance  of  small, 
white,  hard  grains,  which  seem  to  be  composed  of  different  layers, 
the  exterior  of  which  are  hardest,  and  the  most  internal  are  simi- 
lar to  gum.    It  is  found  isolated  in  the  cells  of  the  cellular  tissue; 
and  in  some  parts  of  certain  plants,  such  as  the  seeds  of  wheat 
or  of  rye,  the  tubers  of  the  potatoe,  the  ligneous  stems  of  mono- 
cotyle'donous  plants,  &c.,  it  forms  considerable  masses. 

OF  THE  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS. 

62.  The  growth  of  plants  depends  upon  two  phenomena  :   1st, 
the  increase  of  the  diameter  of  stems  already  formed  ;  2d,  the 
development  and  elongation  of  new  branches.     We  will  succes- 
sively examine  both. 

58   Where  are  the  milky  juices  found  ?     Give  some  instances  of  milky 
juices. 

59.  How  are  resinous  juices  collected  from  plants  ?     In  what  part  of  the 
plant  are  they  found  ? 

60.  In  what  parts  of  plants  do  we  find  the  essential  oils  ?     In  what  part 
the  fatty  oils  ? 

61 .  What  is  lignin  ?     What  is  fecula  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

62.  Upon  what  does  the  growth  of  plants  depend  ? 


GROWTH  OF  PLANTS.  59 

63.  The  cellular  tissue  of  plants,  while  it  is  still  young,  and 
receives  a  sufficient  quantity  of  nutritious  juices,  gives  rise  to 
new  cells,  which  are  at  first  very  small,  isolated  and  soft ;  but 
which,  in  proportion  as  they  are  developed,  enlarge  and  harden, 
and  become  as  closely  united  to  each  other  as  to  the  cellular  tissue 
upon  the  surface  of  which  they  are  formed.     Those  cells  which 
have  ceased  to  grow,  no  longer  possess  the  power  of  giving  rise 
in  this  way  to  new  tissue;  they  become  strongly  joined  to  the 
young  cells  with  which  they  are  in  contact;  and  hence  it  is  that 
the  growth  of  plants  takes  place  only  from  the  surface  of  the 
most  recently  formed  parts. 

64.  In  ex'ogenous   plants,  the   new  tissue   is   thus   deposited 
between  the  albur'num  and  the  bark,  and  at  first  appears  in  the 
form  of  a  viscid  matter  which  is  called  cam'bium.     Those  tissues 
which  arise  from  the  albur'num,  form  around  the  ligneous  body 
or  wood  of  the  stem,  a  new  layer  of  albur'num,  exterior  to  all 
those  that  have  been  already  deposited ;  and  those  which  arise 
from  the  bark  constitute  a  new  cortical  layer,  within  the  layers 
of  bark   already  formed.     Each  of  these   layers    increases    in 
thickness  for  a  certain  time,  then  ceases  to  grow,  and,  at  the  end 
of  a  certain  period,  in  its  turn  produces  a  new  layer. 

65.  Perennial  ex'ogenous  plants  in  this  way  form  a  new  layer 
of  wood  and  of  bark  every  year;  and  if  we  cut  through  the 
stem  of  a  tree  transversely,  we  may  see  the  number  of  zones  or 
rings  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  thus  count  the  number  of 
years  it  has  lived. 

66.  The  thickness  of  these  layers  varies  in  different  plants, 
and  also  varies  in  the  same  tree  according  to  its  age,  the  richness 
of  the  soil  in  which  it  grows,  and  the  abundance  of  its  leaves, 
&c.     Trees   grow  most  rapidly  during  the  first  years  of  their 
existence,  and  it  is  observed  that  in  old  trees  the  most  external 
ligneous  layers  are  thinnest.     When  the  soil  that  surrounds  the 
foot  of  a  tree  is  more  favourable  to  vegetation  on  one  side  than 
on  the  other,  the  roots  become  unequally  developed,  and  on  the 
side  where  the  largest  roots  are  found  are  also  found  the  largest 
branches  and  the  thickest  ligneous  layers. 

67.  The  new  ligneous  and  cortical  layers  are  not  restricted  to 
covering  the  surface  of  the  plant,  but  are  prolonged  beyond  it, 
and,  at  different  points,  form  lateral  expansions  which  constitute 

63.  From  what  parts  does  the  growth  of  plants  take  place  ? 

64.  What  is  cam'bium  ?     How  is  the  new  matter   deposited  ?     Do  the 
new  layers  always  continue  to  grow  ? 

65.  How  long  is  occupied  in  the  formation  of  a  new  layer  ? 

66.  Is  the  thickness  of  these  layers  the  same  in  all  plants  ?     When  is  the 
growth  of  trees  most  rapid  ? 

67.  What  are  buds?     Where  are  they  found?     What  are  the  charac- 
ters of  these  buds  ?    Upon  what  does  the  rapidity  of  their  growth  depend  7 


60  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS— GRAFTING. 

the  new  branches.  These  young  shoots  are,  in  general,  protected 
in  their  first  growth  by  peculiar  scales,  and  then  constitute  what 
are  called  buds.  They  are  ordinarily  found  at  the  base  of  the 
petioles  of  the  leaves,  or  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches  in 
ligneous  plants,  and  at  the  collum  or  neck  of  the  root  in  perennial 
herbaceous  plants.  Sometimes  they  are  not  apparent  externally, 
and  are  concealed  even  in  the  substance  of  the  wood :  but  in 
most  instances  they  have  the  form  of  a  small  projecting  tubercle, 
which  shows  itself  in  the  summer,  and  is  known  to  farmers  under 
the  name  of  eye ;  during  the  winter  they  enlarge,  and  in  the 
spring,  when  the  sap  begins  to  rise  with  strength,  and  to  carry 
towards  the  extremity  of  the  branches  the  nutritive  matters  pre- 
viously deposited  in  the  roots  or  in  the  stem,  they  rapidly  develope 
themselves,  their  scales  separate,  and  we  see  a  young  branch 
spring  from  them,  the  leaves  of  which  are  at  first  variously 
plaited  and  very  close  together ;  this  new  shoot  grows  more 
rapidly  in  proportion  to  the  abundance  of  the  sap,  and  during  a 
certain  time  is  elongated  throughout  its  length.  But  after  the 
first  year  it  ceases  to  grow  in  this  way,  and  it  then  forms  laterally, 
and  particularly  towards  its  upper  part,  new  layers  of  vegetable 
tissue  which  contribute  to  the  increase  of  the  length  of  its  ex- 
tremity, and,  at  the  same  time,  to  augment  the  diameter  of  its 
base. 

68.  In  endogenous  trees  growth  takes  place  very  nearly  in  the 
same  manner,  only  the  new  parts  do  not  form  concentric  layers, 
but  simply  bundles  (fasciculi)  of  fibres  variously  arranged,  and 
the  buds  are  ordinarily  developed  at  the  extremity  of  the  stem 
and  branches. 

69.  We  have  said  above  that  the  cells  of  the  cellular  tissue, 
when  very  young,  tend  to  become  united  or  soldered   to  each 
other.     This  is  so  true  that  if  we  lay  bare   a  portion  of  new 
tissue  of  two  neighbouring  trees,  and  bring  these  parts  together 
and  keep  them  in  contact,  they  become  so  intimately  united  that 
the  two  soon  form  a  single  body,  and  possess  one  life  in  common. 
The  art  of  grafting  plants  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  this 
fact. 

[Grafting  is  an  operation  by  which  one  plant  is  joined  to  another  in  vital 
union,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  one.  The  tree  upon  which  grafting  is 
practised  is  called  the  stock,  and  the  branch,  or  rudiment  of  a  branch  that 
is  fitted  to  it,  is  named  the  graft.  The  stock  is  ordinarily  a  wild  shrub, 
and  the  graft  a  cultivated  variety  of  the  same  plant.  In  order  to  succeed, 
the  albur'num  of  the  graft  must  accurately  fit,  through  the  greatest  part  of 
its  extent,  that  of  the  stock,  that  is,  the  tree  upon  which  the  graft  is  im- 
planted ;  then  the  junction,  or,  as  it  were,  soldering  of  the  two  barks,  is 

68.  How  does  the  growth  of  en'dogens  differ  from  that  of  ex'ogens  ? 

69.  Upon  what  does  the   art  of  grafting  depend  ?    What  is  grafting  ? 
What  are  the  modes  of  performing  this  operation  ? 


GROWTH  OF  PLANTS.  61 

effected  by  the  assistance  of  the  cam'bium.  One  condition  necessary  to 
the  success  of  the  operation  is,  that  the  sap  of  the  two  plants  shall  be 
similar ;  for  example,  the  plants  of  the  same  genus,  or  of  the  same  family, 
are  more  readily  grafted  upon  each  other  than  those  which  belong  to  dif- 
ferent families.  Grafting  is  a  very  useful  operation  in  agriculture ;  it 
serves  to  preserve  and  multiply  varieties  which  could  not  be  produced  by 
means  of  seeds  ;  it  saves  time  by  procuring  a  great  number  of  trees  which 
are  with  difficulty  multiplied  by  other  means,  and  accelerates  by  many 
years  the  fructification  of  certain  plants. 

Gardeners  employ  five  or  six  different  processes  to  obtain  the  develop, 
ment  of  the  bud  or  graft  upon  the  bark  of  other  trees  which  they  use  as 
stocks. 

Splice  or  whip  grafting,  consists  in  paring  down  in  a  slanting  direction 
both  the  graft  and  stock,  and,  after  applying  them  neatly  to  each  other, 
securing  them  by  strands  of  bast  matting,  in  the  same  manner  as  two 
pieces  of  rod  are  spliced  together  to  form  a  whip  handle.  The  part  is  after- 
wards  covered  with  tempered  clay,  or  any  convenient  composition  that  will 
exclude  the  air. 

Grafting  by  approach,  or  inarching,  is  a  mode  of  grafting  in  which,  to 
make  sure  of  success,  the  graft  or  scion  is  not  separated  from  the  parent 
plant  until  it  has  become  united  to  the  stock.] 

70.  Such  are  the  principal  phenomena  of  the  life  of  nutrition 
in  plants  :  but  they  are  far  from  taking  place  with  the  same  in- 
tensity at  all  times  ;  and  their  duration  is  extremely  variable. 

71.  In  every  plant  we  observe  periods  of  activity,  of  languor, 
and  even  torpor,  and  then    an   augmentation  of  the  vegetative 
functions.     In  our  climate  these  periods  correspond  with  the  four 
seasons  of  the  year.     During  winter,  the  cold  and  absence  of  the 
leaves,  in  most  plants,  almost  entirely  arrests  nutrition  ;  they  are 
then  in  a  state  of  torpor,  comparable  to  that  which  hibernating 
animals  experience,  and  their  buds  and  roots  alone  continue  to 
grow.     But  when  returning  spring  imparts   to  the  plant  thus 
benumbed  a  certain  amount  of  heat  and  moisture,  it  awakes  in  a 
measure,  the  sap  rises  with  force,  the  buds  develope  themselves, 
the  young  shoots  or  scions  become  elongated,  and  vegetation 
displays  all  its  activity.     In  summer  the  leaves  are  somewhat 
hardened,  and  become  less  suited   for   attracting  the  sap   and 
exhaling  the  liquids  which  reach  them  from  the  roots ;  conse- 
quently vegetation  is  less  active:  and  in  autumn  this  change  in 
the  leaves  being  greater,  gradually  brings  about  their  destruction 
or  fall.     At  this  period,  it  sometimes  happens  that  buds  begin  to 
develope  themselves,  and  again  attract  the  sap  with  force ;  and 
this  ascent  of  the  nutritive  juices  causes    an  elongation  of  the 
branches  and  the  formation  of  new  leaves,  the  freshness  of  which 
is  in  beautiful  contrast  with  the  yellow  tint  of  the  old  ones.     But 
the  cold  soon  enfeebles  all  these  phenomena  of  life,  arid  arrests 

70.  Is  the  duration  of  all  plants  the  same  ? 

71.  Are  the  functions  of  vegetables  always  equally  active  ?     How  is  their 
activity  influenced  ? 

6 

u 


62  AGE  OF  PLANTS. 


nutrition,  even  when  it  does  not  cause  the  fall  of  the  leaves,  as 
ordinarily  happens. 

72.  In  hot  countries,  where  there  is  no  winter  properly  speak- 
ing, there  are,  nevertheless,  periods  of  activity  and  repose  in 
plants  which  correspond  to  the  dry  and  wet  or  rainy  season ; 
there  the  great  heat  arrests  vegetation  as  the  cold  does  in  our 
climate,  and  the  life  of  plants  is  reanimated  in  the  rainy  season. 

73.  As  we  have  already  stated,  a  great  number  of  plants  are 
annual,  that  is,  they  live  only  through  one  year ;  others  com- 
plete their  growth  only  in   the  second  year,  and   die   on   the 
approach  of  the  second  winter,  and  are  termed  biennial ;  others 
again  continue  to  live  many  years,  and  are  for  this  reason  called 
perennial  plants.     All  herbaceous  plants  are  annual  or  biennial; 
ligneous  plants  live  many  years,  and  the  duration  of  their  lives 
exceeds  every  thing  we  could  imagine.     One  of  the  orange  trees 
at  Versailles,   in   France,    appears   to  be  nearly   four   hundred 
years  old ;  and  a  tree  of  the  same  species,  which  may  be  still 
seen  at  the  convent  of  Saint  Sabin  in  Rome,  was  planted  there 
by  Saint  Dominick  more  than  six  hundred  years  ago.     In  Swit- 
zerland there  are  linden  trees  which,  to  judge  from  their  diameter 
and  the  manner  in  which  these  trees  ordinarily  grow,  ought  to  be 
more  than  a  thousand  years  old ;  and  there  is  a  chestnut  tree  at 
Sancerre,  which  was  known  six  hundred  years  ago  as  the  great 
chestnut,  from  which  we  may  conclude  that  its  age  is  not  much 
less  than  that  of  the  lindens  we  have  just  mentioned.     But  the 
tree  most  celebrated  on  account  of  its  longevity  is,  unquestion- 
ably, the  baobab,  that  flourishes  in  Senegal.     A  botanist  named 
Adanson   notices  one  which   three   centuries   before    had   been 
observed  by  two  English  travellers,  and  on  excavating  the  trunk 
of  this  tree,  there  was  found  an  inscription    they^  had  written, 
covered  by  three  hundred  ligneous  layers ;  from  this  they  were 
enabled  to  judge  how  much  this  gigantic  plant  had  grown  in  three 
hundred  years,  and,  comparing  this  with  the  diameter  of  the  tree, 
it  was  estimated  that  the  probable  duration  of  its  existence  was 
upwards  of  five  thousand  years. 

72.  Is  there  any  variation  in  the  activity  of  the  functions  of  vegetables 
in  hot  countries  ? 

73.  What  is  meant  by  an  annual  plant  ?     What  is  meant  by  a  biennial 
plant  ?     What  is  a  perennial  plant  ?     What  is  supposed  to  be  the  age  of 
the  oldest  living  tree  ? 


GENERATION  OF  PLANTS. 


LESSON  IV. 

GENERATION  OF  PLANTS. — Multiplication  of  Plants  by  Division 
— Formation  of  adventitious  Roots — Multiplication  of  Plants 
by  Grafting  ;  by  Tubercles — Phanero gamous  and  Crypto ga- 
mous Plants  defined — Structure  of  Flowers — Peduncles — Pedi- 
cil —  Floral  Leaf —  Bract  —  Involucre — Spatlie — Glume  — 
Torus  —  Receptacle  — Inflorescence  — Perianth  — Calyx — Co- 
rolla—  Petals — Forms  of  the  Corolla — Nectary — JEstivation 
— Essential  Parts  of  Flowers — Stamens — Anther — Pollen — 
Pistil — Carpel —  Ovary. 

OF  THE  REPRODUCTION  OF  PLANTS. 

1.  The  multiplication  of  plants  takes  place  in  two  ways  ;  some- 
times by  means  of  special  organs,  designed  to  produce  the  germ 
of  the  new  individual,  and  sometimes  by  the  simple  division  of 
their  tissue. 

2.  The  multiplication  of  plants  by  division  consists  in  the 
separation  of  a  part  of  an   individual,  which  part  continues  to 
vegetate,  and  becomes  so  complete  in  itself  as  to  constitute,  in  its 
turn,  a  new  individual  plant. 

3.  This  phenomenon  depends  upon  the  fact  that  the  different 
parts  of  a  plant,  placed  under  favourable  circumstances,  have  a 
tendency  to  produce  those  organs  which  are  wanting  to  constitute 
a  complete  plant,  and  that  the  portion  which  gives  rise  to  these 
complementary  parts  becomes  fit  to  live  without  the  assistance  of 
the  individual  from  which  it  was  taken.      For  example,  a  branch 
placed  in  favourable  circumstances  may  put  forth  roots  (which 
are  called  adventitious  when  they  arise  in  this  way,  as  before 
stated  in  page  19),  so  that,  if  it  be  separated  from  its  stem,  it 
will  still  continue  to  be  nourished,  and  will  constitute  a  new  indi- 
vidual ;  the  same  is  true  of  roots ;  they  also  have  the  faculty  of 
giving  rise  to  stems  and  to  leaves  ;  and  a  root  from  which  a  stem 
and  leaves  arise  possesses  all  the  organs  necessary  for  vegetation, 
and  consequently  may  continue  to  live  after  it  has  been  separated 
from  the  plant  of  which  it  at  first  formed  a  part. 

4.  Gardeners  give  the  name  of  shoots  or  slips  to  those  branches 
from  which   they  cause  adventitious   roots   to  spring,  and  which 
they  then  separate  from  the  parent  plant.     In  general  we  succeed 

1.  How  is  the  multiplication  of  plants  effected  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  multiplication  of  plants  by  division  ? 

3.  Upon  what  does  the  multiplication  of  plants  by  division  depend  ? 

4.  How  are  adventitious  roots  artificially  produced  ? 


64  MULTIPLICATION  OF  PLANTS. 

in  producing  these  roots  by  placing  in  a  properly  moist  situation, 
a  branch  in  which  the  progress  of  the  descending  sap  is  slow, 
therefore  permitting  an  accumulation  of  nutritive  matter  in  it. 
To  arrest  in  this  way  the  descending  sap  at  a  point  from  which 
we  wish  to  produce  adventitious  roots,  we  sometimes  make  a  cir- 
cular incision  through  the  thickness  of  the  bark,  and  place  in  it 
a  tightly  drawn  ligature,  and  then  surround  it  with  moist  earth  ; 
sometimes  we  simply  bend  a  branch  into  the  ground,  because,  at 
t'le  point  where  it  is  bent,  the  nutritive  juices,  being  forced  to 
overcome  their  own  weight  in  order  to  ascend  towards  the  stem, 
are  retarded  in  their  progress  ;  at  other  times  we  take  advantage 
of  natural  knots  that  exist  in  a  branch  and  favdur  the  development 
of  adventitious  roots  ;  and  there  are  some  plants,  the  branches 
of  which,  when  surrounded  by  moist  earth  or  moss,  put  forth 
roots  without  a  stagnation  of  the  nutritious  juices  being  necessary. 
When  the  roots  appear,  we  cut  the  branch  so  as  to  separate  it 
from  the  plant  to  which  it  belonged,  and  it  then  constitutes  a  new 
individual. 

5.  But  we  do  not  separate  the  slip  or   branch  until  the  roots 
are  formed,  that  is,  when  it  possesses  all  the  parts  that  compose 
a  complete  plant ;  but  it  often  happens  that  a  branch  cut  before 
it  has  put  forth  adventitious  roots,  continues  to  vegetate  and  pro- 
duce roots  so  as  to  constitute  a  new  individual  :  for  example,  a 
branch  of  willow  freshly  cut  and  planted  in  moist  earth,  promptly 
takes  root  and  becomes   a   tree   similar  to  that  from  which  it 
was  detached  ;  it  is  then  called   a   slip  or  sucker.     All  plants 
may  be  multiplied  in  this  way,  but  with  more  or  less  facility ;  as 
this  operation  rarely  succeeds,  gardeners  seldom  have  recourse 
to  it. 

6.  It  is  not  the  branches  alone  that  may  give  rise  to  adventi- 
tious roots  and  constitute  a  slip  or  shoot ;  sometimes  the  leaves 
will  perform  this  office ;  for  example,  the  leaves  of  the  orange, 
of  the  fig,  &c.,  detached  from  their  stems  and  fixed  in  the  earth 
by  their  petiole,  will  take  root  by  their  principal  nerve,  and  after- 
wards give  rise,  from  the  superior  surface  of  their  paren'chyma, 
to  ascending  stems. 

7.  The  multiplication  of  plants  by  grafting,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken,  is  also  a  mode  of  propagation  that  belongs 
to  this  class  of  phenomena,  because  it  is  effected  by  simple  divi- 
sion ;  only  the  part  of  the  plant  which  is  separated,  instead  of 


5.  When  is  the  new  branch  separated  ? 

6.  Do  any  other  parts  than  branches  produce  adventitious  roots  ?     (See 
page  19.) 

7    What  is  the  multiplication  of  plants  by  grafting  ? 


"MULTIPLICATION  OF  PLANTS.  65 

becoming  complete  in  itself,  forms  an  intimate  union  with  another 
plant,  and  lives  at  the  expense  of  its  roots  as  a  sort  of  parasite. 

8.  Propagation  by  tubercles  is  another  mode  of  multiplication 
by  division,  which  is  effected  by  means  of  buds  surrounded  by  a 
deposite  of  nutritive  matter,  which,  being  placed  in  favourable 
circumstances  in  regard  to  moisture,  heat,  &c.,  may  vegetate  and 
put  forth  a  stem  and  roots.     These  deposites  of  nutritive  matter 
are  sometimes  formed  in  the  roots,  sometimes  in  subterraneous 
stems,  sometimes  in  the  axil*  of  the  leaves,  ordinarily  designated 
under  the  name  of  tubercles,  off-setts,  which,  when    they  have 
attained  a  certain  size,  are  usually  detached.     The  potatoe  pre- 
sents us  with  a  remarkable  example  of  this  mode  of  multiplica- 
tion ;  this  plant  produces  along  its  stems  tubercles  which  are  not 
developed  ordinarily  except  in  its  subterraneous   part,  and   are 
only  held  by  a  thin  thread,  so  as  to  be  easily  separated  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  either  by  the  slightest  force,  or  from  the  death  of  the 
stem  from  which  they  grow ;  now,  each  one  of  these  tubercles 
has  upon  it  several  buds  or  germs  (called  eyes]  enveloped  by  a 
mass  of  cellular  tissue  containing  fecula,  &c. ;    if  placed  in  a 
situation  that  is  sufficiently  moist  and  warm,  these  buds   soon 
begin  to  sprout  and  attract  the  nutritive  matters  deposited  around 
them ;  by  means  of  this  nourishment  the  bud  elongates,  the  stem 
and  leaves  begin  to  develope  themselves,  and  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  perform  their  ordinary  functions,  the  nutritive  juices, 
prepared  within  them,  descend  and  cause  the  formation  of  roots 
so  as  to  give  rise  to  a  new  and  complete  plant. 

9.  To  recapitulate :  we  see,  then,  that,  under  certain  favour- 
able circumstances,  all  plants  may  be  multiplied  by  division,  and 
that  this  division  may  be  effected  by  shoots,  by  slips,  by  grafting, 
and  by  tubercles ;  but  in  most  cases,  the  reproduction  of  plants 
is  effected  in  a  manner  altogether  different,  by  the  means  of  seeds, 
which    are   themselves   the    production   of   particular   organs : 
namely,  flowers  and  fruits. 

10.  The  special  organs  destined  to  secure  the  multiplication  of 
plants  are  the  flowers,  fruits,  and  seeds. 

11.  Plants  that  are  provided  with  perfectly  distinct  flowers,  are 
designated  under  the  name  of  Phanero 'gamous  (from  the  Greek, 
phaneros,  evident,  and  gamos,  marriage)  ;  and  those  which  have 
no  distinct  special  organs  of  multiplication  are  called  Crypto'- 

*  Axil :  from  the  Latin,  axilla,  arm-pit.     The  angle  or  point  at  which  a 
leaf  or  branch  unites  with  the  stem. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  the  propagation  of  plants  by  tubercles  ? 

9.  How  is  the  reproduction  of  plants  usually  effected  ? 

10.  What  are  the  special  organs  of  reproduction  of  plants  ? 

11.  What  are  phanero' gamous  plants  ?    What  are  crypto'gamous  plants  ? 


66  STRUCTURE  OF  FLOWERS. 

gamous  (from  the  Greek,"  kruptos,  concealed,  and  gamos,  mar 
riage). 

12.  The  flower  consists  of  the  assemblage  of  organs,  upon 
which  spring  the  germs  of  phanero'gamous  plants,  and  the  parts 
which  immediately  surround  them.     Its  use  is  to  secure  the  pro- 
duction of  these  germs,  and  their  fecundation  (fertilization),  that 
's,  to  endow  them  with  the  faculty  of  living  and  of  developing 
themselves  so  as  to  be  able  to  become  plants,  similar  to  those 
from  which  they  were  derived. 

13.  The  fruit  is   the   assemblage   of   these   germs   already 
fecundated,  and  of  organs   destined  to  protect  them  until  they 
attain  maturity,  that  is,  the  state  of  perfect  seeds. 

14.  And  the  seed  is  the  germ  furnished  with  various  envelopes, 
that  is,  the  body  which,  by  its  development,  becomes  the  new 
plant,  and  the  organs  designed  to  protect  it,  or  to  furnish  the 
young  plant  its  first  nourishment. 

Of  the  Structure  of  Flowers. 

15.  The  flowers,  as  we  have  stated  above,  are  the  parts  in 
which  the  germ  of  the  new  plant  is  produced  and  acquires  the 
property  of  living  and  of  developing  itself.     They  are  composed 
of  appendages  analogous  to  leaves,  but  of  various  forms,  which 
arise  from  the  extremity  of  the  stem  or  its  ramifications. 

16.  Sometimes  the  flowers  arise  immediately  from  the  stem 
without  being  attached  to  it  by  a  tail  or  any  accessory  part ;  in 
this  case  they  are  termed  sessile  (from  the  Latin,  sessilis,  dwarfish, 
that  is,  without  a  stalk  or  stem) ;  but  in  general  that  portion  of 
the  stem  which  bears  them  is  prolonged  and  constitutes  a  sort  of 
tail,  analogous  to  the  petiole  of  a  leaf;  to  this  support  we  give 
the  name  of  peduncle  (from  the  Latin,  pes,  a  foot,)  a  little  foot, — 
(Jigs.   81,   82,   96);   and   when  it  is  divided,  each  one  of  the 
divisions  that  is  terminated  by  a  flower  is  called  a  pedicil.     (See 
Jig.  I, page  11). 

17.  For  example :  pedunculate  Jlowers  have  the  tailor  stem 
simple,  as  in  the  common    pink ;    and  pedicelate  Jlowers  have 
several  tails   springing  from  one  common  to  the  whole,  as  in 
hunches  or  clusters  of  lilac,  of  the  vine,  dec. 

18.  The  peduncle  or  the  pedicil  of  a  flower  may  arise  from 

12.  Of  what  does  the  flower  consist  ?     What  is  its  use  ? 
]  3    What  is  meant  by  the  fruit  ? 

14.  What  is  the  seed  ? 

15.  Of  what  are  flowers  composed  ? 

16.  What  is  the  peduncle  of  a  flower?    What  is  a  pedicil? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  pedicelate  flowers? 

18.  What  is  a  floral  leaf?     What  is  a  bract? 


STRUCTURE  OF  FLOWERS. 


67 


the  very  extremity  of  the  branch  that  bears  it,  or  laterally,  and 
in  this  last  case,  it  arises  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf,  which  on  this 
account  has  been  called  floral  leaf,  when  it  resembles  other 
leaves  (fig.  86),  and  is  named  bract  (from  the  Latin,  bractea, 
a  thin  leaf  of  metal),  when  it  differs  from  the  other  leaves  in  its 
colour,  its  form  (figs.  75  and  76),  or  in  the  absence  alone  of  the 
buds  in  its  axil. 

19.  These  bracts  may  be  found  at  the  base  of  the  peduncle, 
or  at  the  base  of  each  of  its  divisions,  when  this  support  is 
ramified  as  in  pedicelate  flowers.  When  they  are  symmetrically 
arranged  around  one  or  several  flowers,  so 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  accessory  envelope, 
the  assemblage  is  called  an  involucre  — 
from  the  Latin,  involutus,  folded  in  (fig. 
75).  —  Generally,  they  have  a  foliaceous 
consistence,  but  they  sometimes  resemble 
little  scales,  more  or  less  closely  embracing 
the  base  of  the  flower.  When  the  in- 
volucre surrounds  a  single  flower,  and  is 
very  close  to  it,  it  often  resembles  one 
of  the  proper  envelopes  of  the  flower, 
called  calyx  (Latin,  the  cup  of  a  flower), 
and  in  this  case  it  is  commonly  known  „.  _. 
under  the  name  ofcalicula,  as  in  the  mal- 
low. When  the  involucre  entirely  covers  a  flower  before  it  is 
blown,  and  the  flower  is  not  seen  externally  until  this  envelope 


Fig.  76.  —  SPATHE. 


Fig.  77.  —  GLUME. 


is  torn  open  or  unrolled,  it  is  called  a  spathe  (fig.  76,  sp,  from 
the  Greek,  spathe,  a  ladle) :  —  the  common  onion,  narcissus  (fig 


19.  What  is  an  involucre  ?     What  is  a  spathe  ?     What  is  a  glume  ? 


IKTLORESCENCE. 


113),  the  palm,  &c.,  are  examples.  Finally,  the  bracts  of  some 
plants  are  in  the  form  of  two  small  scales,  which  seem  to  be  in 
the  place  of  the  proper  envelopes  of  the  flower,  and  then  they 
constitute  what  botanists  call  glume  (from  the  Latin,  gluma, 
a  husk  of  corn,  fig.  77). 

20.  The  terminal  portion  of  the  pedicil  which   gives  rise  to 
the   different   parts   of    the   flower,   is   called   torus   (from   the 
Latin,  torus,  a  bed).     When  the  terminal  extremity  of  a  peduncle 

is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  pedicils, 
and  these  are  very  short,  we  generally  re- 
mark that  the  principal  support  is  widened 
and  thickened,  and  to  this  dilated  portion  of 
the  peduncle  we  give  the  name  of  recep- 
tacle ;  it  contains  a  deposit  of  nutritive 
matter  destined  to  assist  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  flowers  situate  above,  and  it 
is  sometimes  entirely  fleshy  as  in  the 

Fig.  78. — RECEPTACLE,  artichoke  ;  sometimes  it  is  so  concave  as  to 
completely  enclose  the  flowers  and  fruits 

that  arise  from  it,  as  is  seen  in  the  fig  tree  (fig.  78). 

21.  We   give  the  name  of  inflorescence  to  the  arrangement 
which  the  flowers  assume  on  the  stem,  and  we  give  special  names 
to  the  different  arrangements  they  assume.     For  instance,  those 
flowers  which  spring  from  the  axil  of  an  ordinary  leaf,  are  called 
axillary  flowers ;   and  these  axillary  flowers   are   again  dis.tin- 
guished  by  the   terms   solitary,  geminal,  ternary,  quaternary, 
and  fascicular,  according  as  one,  two,  three,  four,  or  a  greater 
number  spring  from  the  axil  of  the  same  leaf:  and  we  give  the 
name  of  verticillate  to  flowers  which  arise  from  the  axil  of  leaves 
which  are  also  verticillate,  and  form  a  kind  of  ring  around  the 
stem.      Terminal  flowers  are  those  found  at  the  extremity  of  the 
stem  or  a  principal  branch,  and  accompanied  at  their  base  by  two 
opposite  bracts ;  the  term  spike  (fig.  79)  is  applied  to  axillary 
flowers  which  are  arranged  upon   a  common,  but  simple  and 
not  ramified  axis,  as  in  the  wheat,  &c. ;  when  unisexual  flowers 
furnished  with  scales,  the  known  peduncle  of  which  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  spike,  but  is  articulated  at  its  base  in  such  a  manner 

Explanation  of  Fig.  78.  —  Flowers  of  a  fig  tree  enclosed  in  a  concave 
receptacle ; — c,  receptacle  ; — 6,  flowers. 

20.  What  is  meant  by  torus  ?     What  is  the  receptacle  ? 

21.  What   is   meant   by  inflorescence?      What   is   meant   by   axillary 
flowers  ?     What   are  verticillate   flowers  ?     What   are   terminal   flowers  ? 
What  is  a  spike  ?     What  is  a  cat-kin  ?     What  is  a  cluster  ?     What  is  a 
panicle  ?     What  is  a  thyrsus  ?     What  is  a  corymb  ?     What  is  an  umbel  ? 
What  is  a  capital  ?  -*~r%,.  ( 


PARTS  OF  FLOWERS. 


as  to  be  entirely  detached  after  inflorescence,  as,  for  example,  in 
the  flowers  of  the  willow,  elm,  beech,  oak,  &c.,  it  is  called  a  cat- 
kin ;  when  all  the  flowers  are  borne  upon  a  common  peduncle, 
irregularly  branched, 
they  are  termed  a 
cluster,  as  in  the 
horse-chestnut ;  when 
flowers  are  arranged 
on  the  stem  similarly 
to  a  cluster,  but  have 
the  secondary  divi- 
sions very  much  elon- 
gated and  widely  se- 
parated from  each 
other,  they  form  a 
panicle,  as  in  the 
male  flowers  of  the 
maize  or  Indian  corn ; 
thyrsus  is  a  sort  of 
cluster,  the  axis  of 
which  is  much  elon- 
gated, and  the  branch- 
es of  which,  in  parti- 
cular, have  the  same 

arrangement  as  the  assemblage  of  the  cluster, 
as  in  the  lilac  and  vine;  a  corymb  is  where  all 
the  flowers,  the  peduncles  of  which  with  their 
ramifications  arise  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
stem,  at  different  points,  and  reach  to  nearly  the 
same  height,  as  in  the  milfoil;  when  the  peduncles 
are  of  equal  lengths  and  arise  from  the  same  point,  diverging  and 
ramifying  in  a  uniform  manner  so  that  the  assemblage  of  flowers 
presents  an  arched  surface  like  the  top  of  an  extended  parasol, 
we  have  an  umbel,  as  in  the  carrot,  parsley,  hemlock,  &c.  (fig. 
156) ;  we  give  the  name  of  capital  to  an  assemblage  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  little  flowers  upon  a  common  receptacle,  that 
is  wider  than  the  summit  of  the  peduncle,  and  surrounded  by  a 
particular  involucre,  as  in  the  artichoke,  milk-thistle  (fig-  80), 
the  marigold  (fig»  153),  the  sunflower,  &c. ;  capitals  are  often 
designated  under  the  name  of  compound  or  composite  flowers, 
because  at  first  sight  the  assemblage  of  all  the  flowers  borne 
upon  a  common  peduncle  appear  to  form  only  one  and  the  same 
flower. 

22.  The  flower  itself  is  ordinarily  composed  of  two  series  of 
organs,  namely,  (1.)  the  essential  parts,  which  occupy  the  centre, 


Fig.  80. A    CAPITAL. 


Fig.  79. 

A    SPIKE. 


22.  How  is  a  flower  composed  ? 


70  CALYX.— SEPALS. 

and,  (2.)  the  accessory  or  tegumentary  parts,  which  occupy  the 
circumference,  and  serve  to  protect  the  first. 

23.  These  tegumentary  parts  of  ike  flower  constitute  what  is 
called  the  perianth  (from  the  Greek  peri,  around,  and  anthos, 
flower) ;  sometimes  they  are  wanting  entirely ;  and  at  others 
they  are  imperfect;  hut  in  most  instances  they  form  around  the 
essential  organs  of  infloresence  two  envelopes,  the  most  external 
of  which  is  called  the  calyx  (cup  of  the  flower),  and  the  second, 
which  is  situate  above,  and  within  the  preceding,  is  named 
the  corolla  (from  the  Latin,  corolla,  a  little  crown) — {figt.  81,  82, 
83,  84). 

d  24.  CALYX.  The  calyx 

or  the  external  envelope 
of  the  flower  is  composed 
of  a  variable  number  of 
appendages,  analogous  to 
leaves,  which  are  called 
sepals  ;  they  are  arranged 
nearly  in  a  circle  around 
the  inferior  part  of  the 

Fig.  81.  —  SECTION  OF  A  FLOWER.  flower  (fig.  81 , 6,  c).  Their 

colour  is  generally  green  ; 
their  surface  is  furnished  with  stomata,  and  their  structure  is 
similar  to  that  of  leaves. 

25.  Sometimes  all  the  se'pals  are  perfectly  distinct  and  may 
be  separated  without  breaking  their  tissue ;  in  this  case  they  con- 
stitute a  polyse'palous*  calyx  ;  at  other  times  they  are  joined,  or 
as  it  were  glued  together,  in  such  a  way  that  the  calyx  appears 
to  be  formed  of  a  single  piece,  and  is  then  designated  under  the 
name  of  monose'palous\  or  gamose 'pafaus^  calyx  (figs.  84,  89, 
95  ).  When  this  junction  extends  throughout  the  whole  extent 

Explanation  of  Fig.  81. — Vertical  section  of  a  polypetalous  flower  (of  the 
family  of  Rosacece),  showing  the  relative  position  of  its  different  parts: — a, 
the  peduncle  ; — 6,  the  calyx ; — c,  division  of  the  calyx ; — rf,  the  corolla ; — e, 
the  stamens ;— /,  the  stigma ; — o,  the  ovary. 

*  POLYSE'PALOUS. — From  the  Greek,  polus,  many,  and  se'pal  —  having 
many  sepals. 

t  MONOSE'PALOUS. — From  the  Greek  monos,  single,  and  se'pal  —  having  a 
single  se'pal. 

t  GAMOSE'PALOUS. — From  the  Greek  ^omos,  marriage,  and  se'pal — having 
the  se'pals  united  together,  forming  a  single  piece  or  sepal. 

23.  What  is  a  perianth  ? 

24.  What  is  a  calyx  ? 

25.  What  are  sepals  ?    What  is  a  polyse'palous  calyx  ?    What  is  a  mono- 
sepalous  calyx  ?     What  is  meant  by  an  entire  calyx  ?     What  are  the  lobes 
of  the  calyx  ?     What  is  a  regular  calyx  ?     What  is  an  irregular  calyx  ? 
What  is  a  labiate  calyx  ? 


SEPALS.— COROLLA.  71 

of  the  se'pals,  the  calyx  is  entire,  but  in  general  it  occurs  only  at 
the  base,  and  then  the  terminal  and  free  portion  of  the  se'pals 
constitutes  the  lobes  or  teeth  which  occupy  the  upper  part  of  the 
calyx  and  spread  more  or  less.  We  give  the  name  of  tube  to  the 
lower  and  commonly  contracted  part  of  a  calyx  thus  formed,  and 
the  superior  and  open  part  is  called  the  limb.  In  most  dicotyle'- 
donous  plants,  the  calyx  is  composed  of  five  se'pals,  and  when 
these  appendages  are  united  at  the  base,  presents  five  lobes  ; 
sometimes,  however,  there  are  only  three  or  even  two,  and  there 
are  examples  of  a  considerably  greater  number.  Its  form  varies  : 
sometimes  it  is  regular,  that  is,  composed  of  parts  entirely  like 
each  other ;  sometimes  irregular,  that  is,  consisting  of  parts  that 
differ  from  each  other  in  form  or  size.  Sometimes  certain  se'pals 
nre  united  to  each  other  for  a  shorter  distance  than  the  rest,  so  as 
to  form  divisions  of  unequal  size,  and  constitute  what  botanists 
term  a  labiate  calyx  (labiate,  from  the  Latin  labium,  lip). 

26.  The  se'pals,  like  the  leaves,  are  sometimes  caducous  (from 
the  Latin,  cado,  I  fall),  and  sometimes  persistent  (from  the  Latin 
per,  through,  and  sisto,  I  remain);  after  inflorescence  they  some- 
times dry  where  they  are,  and  at  other  times,  on  the  contrary, 
they  enlarge  and  become  fleshy.     Their  form  varies :  some  are 
lanceolate  (lance-shaped)  or  pointed,  others  are  blunt,  and  others 
again  are  cordiform  (heart-shaped).  In  some  plants  their  extremity 
is  hardened  so  as  to  resemble  a  spine  or  a  long  hair. 

27.  The  whole  of  the  calyx  formed  by  the  assemblage  of  the 
se'pals  also  presents  considerable  differences  ;  the  monose 'palous 
ca'lices  may  be  tubular  (or  elongated  in  the  form  of  a  tube,  as  in 
the  pink);  urce'olate  (from  the  Latin  urceus,  a  pitcher),  or  in  form 
of  a  pitcher  or  urn,  contracted  above  the  limb  and  then  dilated, 
as  in  the  rose ;  campa'nulate  (from  the  Latin  campanula,  a  little 
bell),  or  in  form  of  a  bell ;  vesicular,  compressed,  angular,  &c* 
The  polyse 'palous  ca'lices  also  vary ;  some  are  tubular,  others 
are  campanulate,  others  stellate  (star-shaped),  &c. 

28.  Corolla.     The  internal 
envelope    of    the    flower    or 
corolla   is   composed,  like  the 
calyx,  by  the  union  of  a  certain 
number  of  lamellar  appendages 
somewhat  analogous  to  leaves,         . 
which  are  arranged  circularly 

in  one  or  more  rows  or  whorls        a s 

(Jigs.  82,  83,  84).     To  these 

appendages  we  give  the  name  Fig.  82. COROLLA. 

26.  In  what  particulars  do  se'pals  resemble  leaves  ? 

27.  What  are  the  forms  of  calices  ? 

28.  What  is  a  corolla  ?     What  are  petals  ? 


72 


COROLLA. 


Fig.  83. 

POLYPETALOUS    COROLLA. 


d  c        of  petals  (from  the  Greek  petalon,  a  leaf, 

Jig.  83,  c),  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
they  differ  from  leaves  more  than  the  se'« 
pals ;  they  have  but  few  stomata ;  their 
nerves,  which  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
leaves    as    regards   their    direction,    art; 
more  slender,  and  contain  no  other  kin'i 
""*  of  vessels  but  tracheae ;    they   are  very 
__a  seldom  green,  but  generally  possess  tho 
most  brilliant  colours. 

29.  The  corolla  is  sometimes  mono- 
pe'talous  or  gamope'talous  (Jig.  84),  that 
is,  composed  of  a  single  piece,  formed  by  the  inti- 
mate union  of  all  the  petals  (as  in  the  flower  of  the 
bind-weed) ;  at  other  times  it  is  polypetalous  (Jigs. 
82,  83),  that  is,  composed  of  a  greater  or  less  num- 
ber of  separate  petals  (as  in  the  rose,  pink,  &c.). 
The  number  of  petals  is  ordinarily  five,  in  which 
case  they  are  arranged  around  the  essential  or- 
gans of  the  flower  in  a  single  row  or  whorl  or 
verticellus ;  sometimes  there  are  three  or  four 
only,  or  seven,  and  at  other  times  a  much  larger 
number,  and  then  they  are  placed  so  as  to  form 
several  concentric  whorls  (verticelli),  and  to  alter- 
nate with  those  of  the  neighbouring  row.  Polype' - 
talous  flowers  are  called  dipe'talous  when  they 
have  two  petals  only ;  tripe'talous  when  they  have  three ;  tetra- 
pe'talous,  pentape'talous,  hexape'talous,  when  they  have  four,  five, 
and  six  petals,  and  so  on. 

30.  We  generally  recognise  in  a  pe'tal,  the  claw  or  inferior 
part,  corresponding  to  the  petiole  of  the  leaf,  which  is  more  or 
less  contracted,  and  the  limb,  which  is  more  or  less  spread  and 

Explanation  of  Fig.  82.  —  A  polypetalous  flower  (of  the  family  of  Rosa, 
cese) : — a,  the  peduncle  or  flower-stalk  ; — 6,&,6,6,  extremities  of  the  divisions 
of  the  calyx  or  sepals  ; — c,c,  the  petals  of  the  corolla ; — d,  the  stamens  (in 
this  instance,  peripy'nous,  from  the  Greek,  peri,  around,  and  gune,  woman), 
in  the  midst  of  which  is  seen  the  pistil. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  83.  —  Flower  of  a  malva'cea  : — o,  the  calyx  ;— fe,  the 
corolla ; — c,  the  stamens  united  in  a  tubular  andro'phorum  (from  the  Greek 
aner,  man,  or  in  Botany,  a  stamen,  and  pherein,  to  bear)  — a  columnar  ex- 
pansion of  the  centre  of  the  flower  upon  which  the  stamens  seem  to  grow ; 
— d,  the  stigmata. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  84.  —  Represents  a  monopetalous,  labiate  flower,  or 
bilobate  corolla. 

29.  What  is  meant  by  a  monopetalous  corolla  ?     What  is  a  polypetalous 
corolla  ? 

30.  What  is  the  claw  of  a  petal  ?     What  is  the  limb  of  a  petal  ?     What 
is  the  throat  of  a  corolla  ? 


Fig.  84. 

MOXOPETALOUS 
COROLLA. 


VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  COROLLA.    *  73 

constitutes  the  upper  part.  Its  form  varies  very  much :  some- 
times it  is  rounded^  sometimes  acute,  sometimes  hollow,  and  at 
other  times  its  base  is  prolonged  like  a  spur.  Like  the  calyx, 
the  corolla  is  sometimes  regular,  sometimes  irregular;  sometimes 
it  is  cadu'cous;  that  is,  it  falls  as  soon  as  it  is  expanded  or  blown; 
at  other  times  it  fades  in  the  flower  before  it  is  detached,  and  is 
then  said  to  be  marcescent,  and  we  generally  distinguish  an  in- 
ferior, straight  portion,  which,  in  monopetalous  flowers,  consti- 
tutes the  tube;  a  superior  part  which  is  more  or  less  flaring, 
called  limb,  and  a  circular  line  which  separates  the  latter  from 
the  tube,  and  bears  the  name  of  throat. 

The  general  form  of  the  corolla  varies  much ;  the  following 
are  its  principal  modifications. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  COROLLA. 

Corollas  are  monope'talous,  when  they  are  formed  of  a  single 
petal,  and  polype'talous,  when  they  consist  of  several  petals. 

MONOPETALOUS  COROLLAS  are  either  regular  or  irregular. 

31.  The  principal  forms  of  REGULAR  MONOPETALOUS  COROLLAS, 
are  the  following : 

~  ' 


Tabular,  when  the  tube  is  long,  as  in  the 
lily. 

Campanulate,  or  bell-shaped,  as  in  the 
annexed  figure  (85).  (From  the  Latin,  cam- 
pana,  a  bell.)  Example:  the  campanula. 


Fig.  85.— -CAMPANULATE. 


Infundibular,  or  funnel-shaped,  as  in  the  flower 
of  the  tobacco  (fig.  86). 

(Infundibular,  from  the  Latin,  infundibulurn,  a 
funnel.) 


Fig.  86. 

INFUNDIBULAR, 


31.  What  is  a  tubular  corolla?     When  is  it  campanulate?     When  is  it 
infundibular?      When   is   it   cyathiform  ?     What   is   a   hypocrate'rilbrm 
corolla  ?    What  is  a  rotate  corolla  ?    What  is  an  urce'olate  corolla?    What 
i«  a  scu'tellate  corolla  ? 
7 


74 


VARIETIES  OF  COROLLA. 


Cyathiform,  or  cup-shaped  (fig.  87).  (Cyathiform, 
from  the  Latin,  cyatkus,  a  drinking-cup.)  It  differs  from 
the  infundibular  corolla  in  having  its  tube,  and  of  course 
its  border,  less  spreading;  and  from  the  campanulate, 
in  not  having  its  tube  appear  as  if  scooped  out  at  the 
base. 

CYATHIFORM. 

Hypocrate'riform,  or  salver-shaped,  when  the 
tube  is  long,  and  expanded  into  a  flat  limb  at  the 
throat  or  entrance  into  the  corolla,  as  in  the  prim- 
rose. 

(Hypocrate'riform :  from  the  Greek,  upot  under, 
krater,  cup,  and  phorme,  shape.  Salver-shaped.) 
The  form  of  a  corolla  consisting  of  a  tube,  sud- 
denly expanded  into  a  flat  border.  (  Fig.  88  : — c, 
corolla  ; — d,  the  calyx.) 


—  d 


Fig.  88. 

PRIMROSE. 

Rotate,  or  wheel-shaped,  when  the  tube  is 
very  short,  and  the  limb  expanded  and  almost 
flat. 

Urceolate,  or  pitcher-shaped,  when  it  is  di- 
lated towards  the  base,  and  contracted  towards 
the  orifice,  as  in  several  heaths,  &c.  Fig.  89 
represents  an  urceolate,  monopetalous  corolla  : 
— a,  the  calyx; — b,  tube  of  the  corolla ; — c,  the 
limb  of  the  corolla  ; — d,  the  pistil. 

Scu'tellate,  or  porringer-shaped,  when  it  is 
expanded  and  slightly  concave,  like  a  basin. 

The  following  are  the  principal  forms  of 


Fig.  89. 

URCEOLATE. 


Fig.  90. 
BILABIATE. 


IRREGULAR  MONOPETALOUS  COROLLAS. 

32.  Bilabiate,  when  it  is  more  or  less  elongated, 
dilated,  and  open  towards  the  top,  and  terminated  by 
two  lips,  one  superior  and  the  other  inferior  (Jig. 
90). 

Personate,  or  in  form  of  a  mask,  when 
the  tube  is  elongated  and  the  throat  di- 
lated and  closed  above  by  the  approxima- 
tion of  the  limb,  which  consists  of  two 
unequal  lips  (Jig.  91). 

Anomalous,  when  its  form  is  so  irregu- 
lar that  it  cannot  be  referred  to  any  of 
the  ordinary  types. 


32.  What  is  a  bilabiate  corolla  ?     When  is  a  corolla  personate  ?    When 


VARIETIES  OF  COROLLAS. 


75 


The  following  are  the  principal  forms  of 


REGULAR  POLYPETALOUS  COROLLAS. 

Cruciform  (from  the  Latin,  crux,  a  cross), 
when  it  is  composed  of  four  petals  with  an 
elongated  claw,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  as  in  cresses  (fig.  92).  , 

(The  four  petals  have  the  form  of  a  St.  Andrew's 
cross ;  the  lower  part  is  the  unguis  or  claw,  and  the 
upper  part  is  called  the  tolamen  or  border,  each  petal 
having  the  form  of  a  battledore.     The  claw  is  some- 
Fig.  92.— CRUCIFORM,    what  longer  than  the  border.) 

Rosa'ceous,  when  the  petals,  from 
three  to  five,  or  more,  have  a  very  short 
claw,  and  are  expanded  as  in  the  simple 
rose  (fig.  93). 

Cary'ophylla'ceous  (from  the  Latin, 
caryophyllus,  the  garden  pink) — when 
the  petals,  five  in  number,  have  very 
long  claws,  concealed  by  the  calyx, 
as  in  the  pink. 

The  following  are  the  principal  forms  of  the 


IRREGULAR  POLYPETALOUS  COROLLAS. 


Papiliona'ceous  (from  the  Latin,  papilio, 
a  butterfly),  when  the  petals,  five  in  num- 
ber, have  each  a  peculiar  form,  the  two 
lower  ones  ordinarily  united  to 
each  other,  forming  what  is  call- 
ed the  carina  or  keel  (fig.  95) ; 
the  two  lateral  ones  are  general  ly 
expanded  and  called  wings ;  and 
the  superior  one  ordinarily  erect, 
various  in  form,  and  covered  by 
the  other  four,  previous  to  the 


Fig.  95. 

CARINA. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  94.  —  Represents  a  papiliona'ceous  flower; — c,  the 
calyx ;  —  6,  the  banner ;  —  c,  the  wings ;  —  d,  the  carina  or  keel ;  —  e,  the 
stamens. 

Fig.  95  is  the  same  flower,  having  the  banner  and  wings  removed  to 
show  the  carina. 


is  it  anomalous  ?     What  is  a  cruciform  corolla  ?      What  is  a  rosaceous 
corolla  ?    When  is  it  caryophylla'ceous  ? 
33.  What  is  a  papiliona'ceous  flower  ?    What  is  the  vexillum  ? 


76  NECTARY.— ESTIVATION. 

blowing  of  the  flower,  and  called  the  banner,  or  standard,  or 
vexillum,  as  in  the  pea,  acacia,  &c.  (Jig.  94). 

Anomalous,  when  the  petals  are  irregular  without  having  the 
papiliona'ceous  form,  as  in  the  violet. 

34.  NECTARY. — The    word    "  nec- 
tary," (from   nectar,  the  food  of  the 
gods,)  is  of  very  general  application, 
and  is  used  to  express  some  peculiar 
modifications  in  the  sepals  or  petals, 
by    which   they    assume   an    unusual 
form ;     but     more     especially    when 
there    is    some    alteration   of    struc- 
ture,   by    which    they   are  wholly  or 
partially  converted  into  secreting  or- 
gans, and  exude  a  saccharine,  glutin-  P 

ous  juice.  J%- 96. -NECTARY. 

35.  ^ESTIVATION. — As  the  condition  of  the  leaf  whilst  yet  in 
bud,  is  termed  its  vernation,  so  the  manner  in  which  the  several 
parts  of  the  flower  lie  folded  in  the  flower-bud,  is  termed  their 
cestivation. 

36.  Certain  flowers  (the  tulip  for  example),  instead  of  having 
a  double  perianth,  have  only  a  single  envelope,  and  we  are  not 
certain  whether  it  is  a  calyx  or  corolla.     In  general  it  seems  to 
bear  a  closer  resemblance  in  structure  to  the  calyx,  but  it  some- 
times presents  the  bright  colours  of  corollas ;    it  is  sometimes 
analogous  to  the  first  of  these  floral  envelopes,  and  sometimes 
analogous  to  the  second ;  and  at  other  times  again  it  is  entirely 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  two,  which  have  become  perfectly 
alike.     Be  it  as  it  may,  we  give  the  name  of  perigonium  (from 
the  Greek,  peri,  around,  and  gein&mai,  I  grow)  to  this  single 
envelope  (which,  in  other  respects,  may  be  double  or  simple) ; 
and  flowers  that  possess  this  mode  of  organization  are  termed 
monochla'mydous  (from  the  Greek,  monos,  one,  chlamus,  cloak, 
and  eidos,  resemblance: — apparently  having  but  one  covering  or 
envelope). 

37.  ESSENTIAL  PARTS  OF  FLOWERS. — The  essential  parts  of 
a  flower  occupy  its  centre  (Jigs.  81,  82,  83),  as  has  been  stated 
above,  and,  although  they  are  the  most  important,  they  are  very 

Explanation  of  Fig.  96.  —  Flower  of  the  larkspur;  —  w,  the  nectary  ;  — 
jj,  the  peduncle. 

34.  What  is  meant  by  nectary  ? 

35.  What  is  meant  by  vernation  ?  (Vernation :  from  the  Latin,  vernug% 
belonging  to  the  spring-.)     What  is   aestivation?    (^Estivation :   from  the 
Latin,  cestiva,  summer  quarters.) 

36.  What  is  the  perigonium  ?     What  are  monochla'mydous  flowers  ? 

37.  What  are  the  essential  parts  of  flowers  ? 


PISTILS.— STAMENS. 


77 


Fig.  97. 

STAMENS. 


Fig.  98. 

PISTIL. 


far  from  being  the  most  apparent  to  the  eye.  These  organs  are 
of  two  kinds ;  one  kind  is  destined  to  produce  the  ovules  or 
germs,  and  the  other  to  cause  their  fecundation ;  the  first  bears 
the  name  of  pistil,  and  the  second  is  called  stamen. 

38.  Most  flowers   are  provided  both  with  a  pistil,  and  with 
stamens,  and  consequently  possess  all  the  organs  necessary  for 

the  production  and  fecundation  of  germs  ; 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  her- 
maphrodite flowers.  Others,  on  the  con- 
trary, either  possess  only  stamens  (fig'  97) 
or  a  pistil  alone  (fig-  98),  and  are  named 
unisexual;  the  plants  that  bear  these  in- 
complete flowers  are  termed  mon&ceous 
(from  the  Greek,  monos,  single,  and  oikos, 
a  house),  when  the  two  kinds  of  flowers, 
those  with  pistils,  and  those  with  stamens, 
are  developed  on  the  same  plant ;  but  when 
these  different  flowers  grow  on  separate  plants,  some 
producing  flowers  with  stamens,  and  others  bearing 
flowers  with  pistils  only,  they  are  named  diceceous 
(from  the  Greek,  dis,  two,  and  oikos,  house).  Those  which  have 
flowers  provided  with  all  the  organs  are  named  polygamous  plants. 

39.  Stamens. — Thesta-  /      e  d 
mens  are  situate  between 

the  corolla  (d)  and  the  pis- 
til (/)  (fig.  99,  e}  ;  they 
are   generally  in  form  of 
filaments  (threads),  and  in 
no   manner   resemble   the 
leaves  in  their  use;  never- 
theless, they  may  be  con- 
sidered   as    analogous   to  Fig.  99. 
leaves,  because,  under  cer- 
tain  circumstances,  they  are   changed  into  petals.     In   double 
flowers,  for  example,  it  is  by  the  stamens  being  changed  into 
petals  that  the  corolla,  in  place  of  being  simple,  as  in  the  natural 
or  uncultivated  state,  presents  a  greater  or  less  number  of  whorls. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  97. — Represents  (enlarged)  one  of  the  male  flowers 
of  a  fig  tree,  isolated  ;  it  has  three  stamens,  each  one  crowned  by  an 
anther. 

Fig.  98.— Represents  (enlarged)  one  of  the  female  flowers  of  the  fig  tree, 
separated ;  it  shows  a  pistil. 

38.  What  are  monoeceous  flowers  ?     What  are  dioaceous  flowers  ?    What 
are  polygamous  flowers  ? 

39.  Where  are  the  stamens  situated  ?     How  are  stamens  analogous  to 
leaves  ?    What  are  double  flowers  ? 

7* 


78 


STAMENS. 


.Fig.  100. 


Fig.  101. 

DIANDROUS. 


40.  The  number  of  stamens  varies  much  in  different  plants ; 
certain  flowers  which  are  on  this  account  named  monandrous 

(from  the  Greek,  monos,  single,  and 
aner,  stamen),  have  but  one  stamen  ; 
other  flowers  called  diandrous  (Jig. 
101),  triandrous,  tetrandrous,  pen- 
tandrous,  &c.  (Jig.  100)  have  two, 
three,  four,  five,  or  more  stamens. 
In  general,  their  number  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  petals,  or  is  a  multiple  of 
tne  peta}s.  Sometimes  they  are  all 
alike,  and  at  other  times  they  are  not  of  the  same 

size  ;  when  the  same  flower  always  has  two  short  and  two  long 

stamens,  it  is  named  didyna'mous  (from  the  Greek,  dist  twice, 

and  dunamis,  power) ;  when  the  whole 

number  of  stamens  is  six,  and  four  of 

them  are  longer  than  the  other  two,  the 

plant  is  termed  tetradyna'mous  (from  the 

Greek,  teteres,  four,  arid  dunamis,  power). 

These  organs  form  one  or  more  whorls 

or  verlicels,  situate  within   the   corolla 

(jig"  102),  and  in  general  those  which 

form   the  external  whorl  (or  the  only  ,.,. 

verticel  when  there  is  but  one)  regularly  '^' 

alternate  with   the  petals,  so  that  each  stamen  corresponds  with 

one  of  the  divisions  of  the  corolla. 

41.  Each  stamen  consists  of  three  parts:  namely,  the  Jila- 
ment,  the  anther ',  and  the  pollen. 

42.  The '  Jilament  of  a  stamen  is  a  sup-  •  ? 
port  analogous  to  the  petiole  of  the  leaves 

and  the  claw  of  the  petals,  and  is  gene- 
rally cylindrical  and  slender,  as  in  fig.  b— - 
103,  b.  Sometimes  it  is  so  short  that 
it  seems  to  be  wanting,  and  in  this  case, 
the  stamen  is  said  to  be  sessile;  gene- 
rally, however,  it  is  very  long. 

43.  The    filaments     arise    from    the 


Fig.  103. STAMENS. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  103. — A  flower  without  its  envelopes ; — cr,  the  calyx ; 
—  fe,  the  filament  of  the  stamen ;  —  c,  the  anthers ;  —  (7,  the  ovary ;  —  e,  the 
stigma. 

40.  Have  all  flowers  the  same  number  of  stamens  ?    What  is  a  didy- 
na'mous flower?     What  is  a  tetradyna'mous  flower?     How  are  sta'mens 
placed  in  respect  to  the  petals  ? 

41.  Of  what  parts  does  each  stamen  consist  ? 

42.  What  is  the  filament  ?     When  is  a  stamen  said  to  be  sessile  ? 

43.  What  part  gives  rise  to  the  filament?     Are   the   filaments  joined 
together,  or  are  they  separate  from  each  other  ?    What  is  an  androphor  ? 


STAMENS.  79 


torus   or   receptacle   (fig.    104,   c),    that    is,   from    the    supe- 
rior extremity  of  the  pedicel  of  the  flower, 
between   the   corolla    and   the   pistil    (figs. 
>~-a  103  and  104).     Generally  they  are  distinct 
—b  from  each  other,  and  entirely  free,  but  some- 
times they  are  joined  together,  and  in  this 
1—c  way  form,  one  or  more  bodies,  to  which  we 
give   the    name    of    androphor   (from    the 
1%.  104.  Greek,  andros,  the  genitive  of  aner,  man, 

anther,  and phoreo,  I  support — anther-bearer:—^^.  105). 

In  certain  plants,  such  as  the  mallows,  this  cohesion  takes 
place  between  the  filaments  of  all  the  stamens,  so  that  the 
androphor  constitutes  a  tube  of  greater  or  less  length,  in  the 
interior  of  which  the  pistil  is  lodged  (fig.  110,  p.  81).  At  other 
times  the  stamens  are  united  in  two  or  more 
bundles  (fasciculi)  and  then  form  two  or  more 
androphors.  And  there  are  flowers  in  which 
the  anthers  cohere  to  each  other,  although 
the  filaments  are  distinct  (fig.  105,  a). 

44.  The   point  where  the   stamens  cease  to 
adhere  to  the  neighbouring  parts  varies ;  some- 
times they  arise  below  the  portion  of  the  pistil 

called  the  ovary  (figure  104);   they  are  then        Fig.  105. 

termed  hypogy'nous  (from  the  Greek,  upo,  under,  and  gune, 

woman  or  pistil) ;  at  other  times  these  organs,  as  well   as  the 

petals,  seem  to  arise  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  above  the  calyx, 

and  are  then  termed  perigy'nous  (fig.  81)  (from  the  Greek, peri, 

around,  and  gune,  pistil).     At  other  times  again,  the  portion  of 

the  pedicle  which  bears  them  is  prolonged  in  the 

same  way  between  the  calyx  and  the  ovary,  but 

adheres  to  the  latter  organ  as  well  as  to  the  calyx, 

and  in  this   instance   the   stamens   seem   to  arise 

above  the  ovary,  and  are  named  epigy'nous  (from 

the  Greek  epi,  upon,  and  gune,  woman  or  pistil). 

Fig.  106  : — o,  the  ovary  ; — e,  the  stamens  ; — s,  the 

stigma. 

45.  In   consequence   of  these   differences,   the 

stamens  may  have  four  different  and  fixed  posi-         Fig.  106. 
tions : 


Explanation  of  Fig.  104.— A  vertical  section  of  the  same  flower,  to  show 
the  interior  of  the  ovary  ;  —  a,  the  lodges  or  cells  of  the  ovary  ;  —  b,  the 
ovules ; — c,  the  torus  or  receptacle  ; — rf,  filament  of  the  stamen. 

Fig.  105. — A  flower  opened  to  show  the  coherence  of  the  stamens  by  the 
anthers  (a)  while  the  filaments  are  distinct. 

44.  What  is  meant  by  a  hypogy'nous  stamen  ?    What  is  meant  by  a 
perigy'nous  stamen  ?     What  is  meant  by  an  epigy'nous  stamen  ? 

45.  What  are  the  several  positions  of  the  stamens? 


80  ANTHER.— POLLEN. 


1st.  Upon  the  internal  parietes  qftJie  tube  of  the 
J     corolla,  when  it  is  monopetalous,  as  in  the  lilac. — • 
Fig.  107  represents  the  flower  of  a  primrose  opened, 
showing  the  pistil  (a)  and  the  stamens  (&)  attached 
to  the  corolla  (c). 

2d.  Upon  the  ovary,  which  takes  place  when  the 
Fig.  107.        corolla  is  epipeHalous,  as  in  umbelliferous  plants. 
3d.  Beneath  the  ovary,  which  happens  when 
the  corolla  is  hypope'talous,  as  in  the  poppy,  the  cruci'fera,  the 
vine  (fig.  115),  &c. 

4th.    Upon  live  calyx,  which  always  occurs  when  the  calyx 
bears  the  petals,  as  in  the  rose  (fig.  82). 

46.  The  corolla  always  has  the  same  position  as  the  stamens  ; 
in  all  monopetalous  corollas,  the  stamens  are  attached  to  the 
corolla,  and  in  all  polype'talous  flowers  the  stamens  are   not 
attached  to  the  corolla. 

47.  Anther.     The  anther  is  the   most  essential   part  of  the 
stamen,  and  occupies  its  summit  (fig.  103,  c);  its  colour  is  almost 
always  yellow,  and  it  may  be  compared  to  the  limb  of  a  very 
small  leaf,  that  has  become  thickened,  narrow,  and  folded  upon 
itself.     In  its  interior  the  pollen  is  formed,-  and  it  ordinarily  con- 
sists of  two  small  membranous  sacks,  named   cells  or  lodges, 
which  are  joined  together  back  to  back,  or  by  a  portion  of  the 
superior  extremity  of  the  filament,  called  the  connective.     Some- 
times there  is  but  one  of  these  cells,  which  seems  to  be  owing 
to  the  abortion  of  one  of  these  pouches,  or  to   the  bifurcation 
of  the   filament;    and    at   other  times   there   are  four.     There 
are  some   also  that  are  divided  internally  by  partitions.     The 
form   and    mode  of  insertion   of  the   anthers  vary ;  sometimes 
these  organs  are  elongated,  at  other  times  rounded,  cordiform, 
&c.     Sometimes  they  adhere  to  the  filament  for  a  great  part  of 
their  length ;  at  other  times  they  are  attached  by  one  of  their 
extremities  only,  and  at  other  times  again,  they  are  fixed  at  their 
middle  upon  the  very  extremity  of  the  filament. 

48.  Pollen.     The  pollen  is  a  yellow  dust  that  is  enclosed  in 
the  cells  of  the  anther,  which  by  falling  upon  the  pistil  causes  the 
development  of  germs  and  the  formation  of  seeds.     It  is  composed 
of  extremely  small  grains,  the  surface  of  which  is  sometimes 
smooth,  sometimes  covered  by  asperities,  and  their  interior  is 
filled  with  extremely  fine  dust.     The  envelope  of  these  grains  of 
pollen  is  composed  of  two  membranes,  and  when  they  come  to  be 

46.  Where  are  the  stamens  attached  in  monopetalous  flowers  ?     Where 
are  they  attached  in  polypetalous  flowers  ? 

47.  Describe  the  anther.      What  is  meant  by  the  connective  ?     Is  the 
form  of  all  anthers  the  same  ?     Are  their  attachments  alike  in  all  flowers  ? 

48.  What  is  pollen  ?    Where  is  it  formed  ?    What  is  the  use  of  it  ? 


PISTIL.— CARPELS. 


81 


moistened,  the  internal  vesicle  swells,  tears  the  external  mem- 
brane, and  escapes,  forming  species  of  tubes  of  greater  or  less 
length. 

49.  Pistil.  The  pistil  (figs.  108, 109),  or 
organ  that  produces  the  germ,  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  flower,  and  is  surrounded  by 
the   stamens,    by  the   perianth    (figs.  103, 
110).    The  portion  of  the  torus  or  extremity 
,e  of  the  pedicel  where  it  springs  sometimes 
takes  its  rise  above  the  origin  of  other  parts 
of  the  flower,  so  as  to  form  for  this  organ  a 
Fig  108       special  support,  named  a  gymnophore  (from 
PISTIL.        the  Greek,  gumnos,  naked,  and  phoreo,  I 
support).     The   pistil   is   composed  of  ap- 
pendages, named  carpels,  which  are  somewhat  analogous 
to  leaves,  but  they  are  folded  inwards,  and  bear  on  their      %'  ^9 
edges  the  ovules  destined  to  become  seeds  (fig.  110). 

50.  In  each   carpel  we   distinguish   three 
parts  :  the  ovary  (fig.  110,  o),  the  style  (e), 
and  the  stigma  (d).     The  ovary  occupies  its 
lower  part  and  encloses  a  cavity  or  cell  (fig* 
108,  e),  in  which  the  germs  are  developed. 
The  style  (fig.   Ill,  c),  is  a  superior   pro- 
longation  of  the  ovary,  which   is,  however, 
much  less,  and  is  often  even  as  slender  as  a 

.   'c    thread  ;  it  varies  extremely  in  length.     And 
(~"°    the  stigma  (fig.  110,  d),  is  the  terminal  por- 
tion of  the  pistil  which  surmounts  the  style ; 
^— -a   or,  when  this  latter  organ  is  wanting,  it  rests 
on  the  ovary,  and  is  generally  composed  of  a 
soft  and,  to  appearance,  glandular  tissue. 

51.  The  number  of  carpels  varies  much; 
j PISTIL.    sometimes  there  is  only  one,  sometimes  two  or 

three,  or  even  more,  and,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  case  of  sepals  and  petals,  these  organs  cohere  more  or  less 

Explanation  of  Fig.  108.  —  Pistil,  with  the  ovary  (e)  opened. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  109.  —  Pistil  of  the  jasmine  magnified. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  110. — Vertical  section  of  a  polypetalous  flower, 
showing  the  manner  in  which  the  androphor  sheaths  the  pistil : — a,  the 
calyx ; — b,  the  corolla ; — c,  the  androphor  open  ;— /,  the  anthers  ; — d,  the 
stigmas ; — e,  the  styles,  the  upper  portion  of  which  is  free  and  the  lower 
part  adherent ; — o,  the  ovaries. 

49.  What  is  the  pistil  ?     Where  is  it  situate  ?     Of  what  is  it  composed  ? 
What  is  a  gymnophore  ? 

50.  What  parts  compose  a  carpel  ?      (Carpel :  from  the  Greek,  karpos, 
fruit.)    What  is  the  ovary  ?     What  is  a  style?     What  is  the  stigma? 

51.  Is  the  number  of  carpels  always  the  same  ? 


CARPELS. 


completely  to  each  other.  When  the  carpels  remain  entirely 
separate  from  each  other,  they  constitute  several  distinct  pistils, 
and  when  they  are  united  into  one  mass,  they  form  what  is  ordi- 
narily called  a  single  pistil.  Sometimes  this  coherence 
takes  place  through  the  whole  length  of  the  carpels, 
sometimes  in  the  ovaries,  without  the  styles  partici- 
pating, so  that  the  single  mass  formed  by  the  ovaries, 
and  ordinarily  called  a  single  ovary,  is  surmounted 
by  two  or  more  styles  ;  and  when  the  styles  are  united, 
the  stigmas  of  the  different  carpels  may  be  separate 
(fig.  110),  or  they  may  cohere  (fig.  104). 

52.  The  number  of  cells  we  find  in  an  ovary  when 
we  cut  through  the  lower  part  of  a  pistil,  depends  upon     Fig.  111. 
the  number  of  carpels  that  are  united  together :  some-  TIL* 

times  there  is  but  one,  at  other  times  two,  three,  four,  five,  or 
even  more.  Its  general  form  is  commonly  ovoid  (egg-shaped). 
Finally,  the  cell  of  each  carpel  encloses  one  or  more  ovules, 
which,  by  being  developed,  become  seeds. 

58.  The  relations  of  the  ovary  with 
other  parts  of  the  flower  vary,  and  fur- 
nish important  characters  for  the  classi- 
fication of  plants.  Sometimes  the  base 
of  this  organ  corresponds  to  the  point 
at  which  both  the  stamens  and  perianth 
are  inserted,  so  that  the  ovary  is  free 
at  the  bottom  of  the  flower ;  it  is  then 
termed  a  super -ovary  (fig. 
112).  At  other  times  it  is  uni- 
ted entirely  round  the  tube  of 
the  perianth,  so  as  to  form  one 
body  with  the  calyx,  and  is 
only  free  at  its  upper  part ;  in 
this  case  the  stamens  and  petals 
seem  to  arise  above  the  ovary, 
and  is  said  to  be  infra  (below), 
or  adherent  (fig.  113).  This  latter 
arrangement  carries  with  it  the  coherence 
of  the  sepals  to  each  other:  therefore, 
whenever  the  ovary  is  infra,  the  calyx 
Fig.  113. — NARCISSUS.  is  necessarily  monose'palous. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  111. — The  pistil :— a,  the  torus ;— 6,  the  ovary; — c, 
the  style ; — </,  the  stigma. 

52.  Upon  what  does  the  number  of  cells  in  the  ovary  depend  ?     What  dc 
the  cells  of  the  carpels  contain  ? 

53.  What  is  a  super-ovary  ?    What  is  an  infra-ovary  ? 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FLOWERS. 


LESSON  V. 

Development  and  Functions  of  Flowers — Flora's  Calendar — 
Flora's  Clock — Fertilization  of  Flowers — Fruit — Epicarp— 
Mesocarp  — Endocarp  — Carpels  — Classification  of  fruits  — 
Seeds  ;  their  structure — Embryo — Coty'ledons — Germination. 

OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  FLOWERS. 

1.  Flowers  are  formed   in  certain  plants  long  before 
they  appear  externally ;  in  the  palms,  for  example,  they 
remain  concealed  a  year  or  even  several  years  before  they 
show  themselves.     They  first  appear  in  the  form  of  a 
bud,  which  is  generally  a  little  larger  than  the  buds  of 
the  leaves,  and  for  a  certain  time  their  different  constituent 
parts  remain  contracted ;  they  are  then  designated  under 
the  name  of  flower-bud  (fig.  114)  ;  finally,  when  they 
approach  a  little  nearer  to  the  term  of  their  growth,  they 
expand  or  blow,  and  it  is  to  this  phenomenon  that  we 
ordinarily  apply  the  name  of  inflorescence  or  flowering 
of  plants. 

2.  Plants  do  not  fade  till  they  attain   a   certain  age,  which 
varies  according  to  the  species  and  according  to  circumstances, 
but  this  period  is  deferred  in  proportion  to  the  slowness  of  the 
growth  of  the  plant  and  the  time  it  is  destined  to   live.     For 
instance,  herbs  fade  on  the  first  year  of  their  existence ;  some 
do  not  fade  until  the  second  year ;  most  shrubs  only  die  in  the 
second,  third,  or  even  fourth  year;  and  in  trees,  this  phenome- 
non is  more  tardy.     A  certain  degree  of  heat  is  necessary  to 
effect  inflorescence,  and  it  is  remarked  that  the  same  plant  begins 
to  fade  sooner  in  warm  countries  than  in  cold ;  it  sometimes  even 
happens,  in  the  latter,  that  certain  plants,  if  they  can  live  at  all, 
never  fade.     Too  much  moisture,  and   superabundant  nourish- 
ment, by  favouring  the  development  of  the  leaves  and  stem,  often 
contribute  to  retard  inflorescence. 

3.  When  a  perennial  plant  has  begun  to  blossom,  it  ordinarily 
produces  new  flowers  every  year  at  about  the  same  period  ;  some- 
times, however,  this  periodical  return  of  inflorescence  does  not 

Explanation  of  Fig.  114.— A  flower  bud,  magnified. 


1.  How  do  flowers  first  appear  ?    What  is  a  flower-bud  ?     What  is  inflo- 
rescence ? 

2.  When  do  plants  fade?     What  circumstances  exert  an  influence  over 
the  duration  of  inflorescence  ? 

3.  Is  the  recurrence  of  inflorescence  regularly  periodical  in  plants  ? 


84  FLORA'S  CLOCK. 


occur  with  the  same  regularity,  and  when  vegetation  is  injured 
by  any  circumstance,  it  may  have  barren  years.  It  has  also 
been  observed,  that  when  a  tree  has  borne  a  great  deal  of  fruit 
one  year  and  retained  it  late,  inflorescence  is  feeble  or  entirely 
wanting  the  succeeding  year;  and  thus  it  is  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  when  the  olives  are  left  late  upon  the  trees,  the  harvest 
fails  the  following  year.  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  the  periods 
of  inflorescence  are  more  approximated,  and  in  warm  and  humid 
autumns,  we  occasionally  see  plants  flowering  a  second  time. 

4.  The  period  of  the  year  at  which  inflorescence  takes  place 
is  generally  definite  for  each  species  of  plant,  but  varies  a  little 
according  to  the  temperature  and  other  atmospheric  circum- 
stances. For  example,  in  the  climate  of  Paris  (which  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  Middle  States),  the  black  hellebore  flowers  in 
January ;  the  hazel  tree  and  willow  in  February ;  the  box,  the 
yew,  the  almond,  the  peach,  the  apricot,  the  primrose,  the  stock- 
gilly  flower,  in  March ;  the  plum,  the  pine,  the  ash,  the  elm,  the 
yoke-elm,  the  hyacinth,  the  dandelion,  &c.,  in  April ;  the  apple, 
the  horse-chestnut,  the  lilac,  the  cherry,  the  peony,  in  May  ;  the 
linden  tree,  the  vine,  oats,  wheat,  the  wild  red  poppy,  larkspur, 
in  June ;  the  violet,  the  carrot,  hemp,  lettuce,  in  July  ;  asters, 
garden-balsams,  and  water-hyssop,  in  August;  ivy,  saffron,  in 
September;  Jerusalem  artichoke  and  certain  other  plants,  in 
October.  The  table  of  the  different  epochs  of  inflorescence  con- 
stitutes what  botanists  have  named  Flora's  calendar.  In  colder 
countries,  inflorescence  is  retarded,  while  in  the  South  it  occurs 
earlier ;  for  example,  in  Smyrna,  the  almond  flowers  in  the  first 
fortnight  of  February ;  in  Germany,  in  the  second  half  of  April  ; 
and  in  Christiania  (Sweden),  in  the  first  days  of  June. 

5.  The  expansion  or  blooming  of  the  flower  is 
almost  always  effected  by  the  separation  of  the 
pieces  of  the  corolla  and  calyx  from  above  down- 
wards; but  there  are  some  in  which  the  floral  in- 
teguments remain  adherent  to  the  summit,  and 
separate  at  the  base,  as  in  the  vine,  for  example 
(fig.  115). 

6.  The  period  of  the  day  at  which  this  phenomenon  occurs 
varies  in  the  greatest  number  of  plants,  but  in  some  it  is  fixed, 
and  a  series  of  plants  arranged  according  to  the  hour  at  which 
the  flowers  blow,  constitutes  what  Linnaeus  called  Flora's  clock. 
For  example,  at  Paris,  the  bearbind  (a  species  of  bind-weed) 
blows  between  three  and  four  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  between 

4.  Does  inflorescence  recur  in  the  same  species  of  plant  at  the  same 
period  ?     What  is  meant  by  Flora's  calendar  ? 

5.  How  does  a  flower  expand  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  JFlora's  clock  ? 


FERTILIZATION  OF  FLOWERS.  85 

four  and  five,  certain  of  the  chicora'ceae  expand ;  between  five 
and  six,  the  convolvulus  tricolor  appears ;  about  seven,  the 
lettuces,  water-lilies,  &c. ;  about  eight  o'clock,  a  species  of 
chick-weed ;  about  nine,  the  umbel-flowered  marigold ;  at  ten, 
the  ice-plant ;  towards  eleven,  the  purslain  an-d  the  star  of 
Bethlehem ;  about  noon,  most  of  the  ficoides  (fig-marigolds)  ; 
about  sunset,  the  evening  primrose ;  between  six  and  seven  in 
the  evening,  the  marvel  of  Peru;  between  seven  and  eight,  the 
privet ;  and  about  ten  in  the  evening,  a  bind-weed,  which  garden- 
ers call  a  morning-glory,  because  they  always  find  it  open  when 
they  rise  in  the  morning. 

7.  When  the  flower  has   arrived   at   a  certain  period  of  its 
development,  the  pollen   formed  by  the  anthers  falls  upon  the 
stigma,  and   in   this  way  causes  the  fecundation  of  the  ovules, 
enclosed  in  the  inferior  part  of  the  pistil ;  frequently  the  stamens 
are  inclined  towards  the  pistil  that  they  may  more  conveniently 
deposit  the  pollen  ;  for  example,  in  the  geraniums,  the  filaments 
of  the  stamens  are  curved  so  that  the  anther  rests  upon  the 
stigma ;   and  in  the  nasturtium,  the  eight  stamens  are  each  in- 
clined in  turn  for  eight  successive  days  to  deposit  the  pollen  on 
the  pistil  in  this  way  ;   and  at  other  times  this  species  of  dust  is 
cast  into  the  air,  and  borne  by  the  wind  to  the  pistil  of  the  same, 
or  of  a  neighbouring  flower. 

8.  It  is  easy  to  prove  that  the  action  of  the  pollen  upon  the 
pistil  is  indispensable  to  the  fecundation  of  the  ovules  and  the 
production  of  seeds  which  are  developed  in  this  organ.     For 
example,  it  is  sufficient  to  cut  off  the  stamens  of  an  hermaphro- 
dite flower  to  render  it  sterile  (provided  it  be  sufficiently  removed 
from  other  flowersun  which  the  stamens  have  not  been  destroyed), 
and  when  we  have  mutilated  a  flower  in  this  way,  it  is  sufficient 
to  cast  upon  its  stigma  some  pollen  taken  from  another  flower  of 
the  same  species  to  make  it  produce  seeds.     In  monceceous  plants 
(that  is,  having  flowers  with  stamens  and  flowers  with  a  pistil 
only  on  the  same  stalk),  as  the  maize,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
remove  the  flowers  with  stamens  to  prevent  the  others  from  pro- 
ducing seeds ;  and  when  the  plants  are  dioeceous  (that  is,  when 
the  stamens  and  pistils  are  borne  on  different  stems)  the  fecun- 
dating action  of  the  pollen  is  still  more  evident ;  it  has  been  long 
known  that  female  date  trees  do  not  produce  fruit,  if  they  are 
very  distant  from  trees  of  the  same  species  bearing  flowers  with 
stamens ;  and  in  this  case  they  will  not  bear,  if  we  are  not  care- 
ful to  dust  over  the  branches,  at  the  time  of  inflorescence,  with 

7.  How  are  flowers  fertilized  by  the  pollen  ? 

8.  What  evidence  have  we  that  the  pollen  is  necessary  for  the  fecundation 
of  flowers  ? 

8 


86  FRUIT. 


pollen  derived  from  the  male  date.  This  operation  is  daily  prac- 
tised on  date  trees  in  the  East;  and  during  the  expedition  of  the 
French  army  in  Egypt,  the  war  having  prevented  the  inhabitants 
of  that  country  from  procuring,  as  usual,  flowers  with  stamens, 
they  were  deprived  of  their  harvest  of  dates. 

9.  The  grains  of  pollen  that  are  deposited  on  the  stigma  meet 
there  with  moisture,  swell,  burst,  and  permit  the  escape  of  the 
granules  contained  within.     These  granules  penetrate  the  spongy 
tissue  of  the  pistil,  and  descend  to  the  ovules  which  they  are 
destined   to   fecundate.      If  the   pollen   is   moistened   before   it 
reaches  the  stigma,  it  bursts  in  the  same  way ;  but  in  that  case 
the  granules  it  contains  are  lost,  and  fecundation  does  not  take 
place ;  for  this  reason  nature  ordinarily  gives  to  the  corolla  a 
form  or  position  that  protects  the  stamens  against  the  action  of 
moisture. 

10.  When  the  ovules  are  fecundated,  the  flower  fades,  and  all 
the  parts  situate  above  the  ovary,  or  that  are  not  adherent  to  this 
organ  (as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  the  calyx),  fall  or  dry  up. 
But  the  ovules,  as  well   as  the  parietes  of  the  ovary,  rapidly 
enlarge  and  constitute  the  fruit. 

OF  FRUIT. 

11.  We  give  the  name  of  fruit  to  the  fecundated  and  increased 
ovary,  and,  by  extension,  we  also  understand  by  this  term,  the 
floral  envelopes  which  may  remain  adherent  to  this  organ. 

12.  The  fruit  is  essentially  composed 
of  two  parts ;  namely,  the  ovules  or 
seeds  (fig*  116,  e\  and  the  carpels  or 
ovaries  which  surround  them,  and  for 
this  reason  they  are  called  by  some 
botanists  the  pericarp  (Jig.  116,  c,  d) 
(from  the  Greek,  peri,  around,  and 
karpos,  fruit).  These  two  parts  are 
never  wanting,  but  the  pericarp  is 
sometimes  so  thin  and  so  closely  united 
to  the  seeds,  that  without  a  very  care- 
a  e  d  ful  examination,  we  would  not  believe 
Fig.  116.  — APPLE.  that  it  existed  at  all. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  116. — Fleshy  fruit  (an  apple) ;— </,  the  peduncle;— ft, 
the  remains  of  the  limb  of  the  calyx ; — c,  the  sarcocarp,  surrounded  by  the 
calyx ; — d,  the  lodges  or  cells  lined  by  the  endocarp ; — e,  the  seeds. 

9.  What  takes  place  after  the  pollen  has  been  deposited  on  the  stigma  ? 

1 0.  What  becomes  of  the  flowers  after  the  fertilization  of  the  ovules  ? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  fruit  ? 

12.  Of  what  parts  is  the  fruit  composed? 


FRUIT.  87 


13.  A  carpel  may  be  compared,  as  we  have  before  said,  to 
a  leaf  folded  upon  itself  (that  is,  the  edges  rolled  inwards  to- 
wards   its    midrib),  and,  like  it,  is   composed  of  three  layers ; 
namely,  an   external  membrane,  which   represents   the  epider- 
mis of  the  inferior  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  in  the  fruit  is  named 
epicarp  (from  the  Greek,  epi,  upon,  and  karpos,  fruit) ;  a  middle 
layer,  which  is  analogous  to  the  paren'chyma  of  the  leaf,  and 
is  called  the  mesocarp  (from  the  Greek,  mesas,  the  middle,  and 
karpos,  fruit),  or   sarcocarp  (from  the  Greek,  sarx,  flesh,  and 
karpos,  fruit,  flesh  of  the  fruit) ;  finally,  an  internal  membrane 
or  en'docarp  (from  the  Greek,  endon,  within,  and  karpos,  fruit), 
which  corresponds  to  the   superior   surface   of  the    leaf;   also, 
the  pericarp,  which  is  nothing  but  the   united   or 
agglutinated    carpels,    is   essentially   composed   of 

three  layers ;  namely,  the  epicarp,  which  occupies 
the  surface  of  it,  the  mesocarp,  which  is  more  deeply 
situated,  and  the  endocarp,  which  lines  the  lodges  or 
cells  in  which  the  seeds  are  found. 

14.  The  epicarp  frequently  has   upon    its   sur-      ^  JC*    ' 
face,  hairs,  glands,  and   stomata ;  in  general,  it  is 

thin  and  flexible,  and  is  often  easily  detached  from  the  subjacent 
parts ;  it  is  this  membrane  which  forms  the  velvety  skin  of  the 
peach  and  of  the  plum.  When  the  ovary  is  infra,  that  is,  when- 
ever it  is  united  with  the  tube  of  the  calyx,  it  is  this  tube  which 
constitutes  the  epicarp,  and  then  we  always  distinguish  at  its 
superior  part,  the  teeth  or  divisions  of  the  limb,  or  at  least  a 
border  formed  by  the  remains  of  this  part  of  the  floral  envelope, 
which  fades  after  fecundation  (Jig.  116,  &). 

15.  The  mesocarp  is  the  parenchy'matous  portion  in  which  all 
the  vessels  of  the  fruit  are  united.     It  frequently  presents  a  very 
considerable  thickness  and  a  fleshy  consistence  (which  has  ob- 
tained for  it  the  name  of  sarcocarp),  as  in  the  peach,  the  apricot, 
the  cherry,  &c.,  and  constitutes  the  part  we  eat.     Sometimes  the 
mesocarp  is  dry  and  fibrous,  as  in  the  almond,  or  it  constitutes  the 
part  called  the  sJiell ;  and  at  other  times  it  is  so  thin  as  to  be 
hardly  distinguished. 

16.  The  endocarp  which  internally  lines  carpels  or  ovaries, 
and  constitutes  the  layer  of  the  pericarp  nearest  the  seed,  varies 
much.     In  most  fruits  it  is  thin  and  transparent  (as  in  the  husk 

Explanation  of  Fig.  117.  —  Fruit  of  a  palm  tree  opened; — a,  the  peri 
carp,  composed  of  three  layers,  called  epicarp,  mesocarp,  and  endocarp ;  — 
b,  the  seed ; — c,  its  embryo. 

13.  Of  what  parts  is  a  carpel  composed  ? 

14.  What  is  the  epicarp  ? 

15.  What  is  the  mesocarp? 

16.  What  is  the  endocarp  ? 


88  FRUIT. 


of  beans,  for  example),  but  at  other  times  it  becomes  hard  and 
brittle,  and  forms  what  is  named  the  stone  of  the  fruit. 

17.  Each  carpel  has  two  edges,  one  named  dorsal,  which  cor- 
responds to  the  primary  nerve  of  this  appendage,  and  another, 
called  ventral,  which  results  from  the  agglutination  of  these  two 
edges  to  each  other ;  and,  when  the  edges  of  the  carpel,  in  place 
of  being  simply  joined,  are  folded  inwards,  they  constitute  an  in- 
ternal partition  which  divides  the  ovarian  cell  or  cavity  into  two 
parts. 

18.  The  carpels  are  sometimes  single  in  each  flower,  some- 
times more  or  less  numerous,  and  in  this  last  case  they  may  be 
agglutinated  to  each  other  in  different  ways,  and  constitute  com- 
pound fruits,  the  appearance  of  which  varies.     Sometimes  they 
are  very  distinct  externally,  at  other  times  are  united  with  the 
torus  and  with  the  calyx  in  such  a  manner  that  no  trace  of  ex- 
ternal union  can  be  seen,  and  constitute  a  simple  fruit  (fig.  116). 
In  general  the  cells  of  different  carpels  united  into  a  single  mass, 
are  perfectly  distinct,  and  the  compound  fruit  consequently  pre- 
sents as  many  cells  as  there  are  carpels ;  but  sometimes  the  car- 
pels are  not  closed  along  their  ventral  edge,  and  then  the  cells  of 
all  these  organs  communicate  with  each  other,  and  constitute  a 
single  cavity,  of  which  the  circumference  only  is  more  or  less 
lobed.     And  it  also  happens  sometimes  that  the  partitions,  which 
separate  the  neighbouring  cells,  are  in  part  destroyed  by  the  pro- 
gress of  maturation,  and  all  the  cells  of  a  compound  fruit  are 
united  into  a  single  cavity,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  a 
species  of  column  formed  by  the  remains  of  the  ventral  edge  of 
the  carpels  thus  united.     Often  one  or  more  carpels  abort  and 
leave  no  trace  of  their  existence.     Finally,  not  only  may  the 
carpels  of  the  same  flower  be  united  to  each  other,  but  sometimes 
those  of  neighbouring  flowers  approximate,  and  become  agglu- 
tinated into  a  single  mass,  and  thus  constitute  what  is  termed  an 
aggregate  fruit.     Figs,  and  the  cones  of  the  pine  tree  are  com- 
posed in  this  way. 

19.  At  the  period  of  their  maturity  fruits  present  still  other 
important  differences ;  some  are  indehiscent  (from  the  Latin  in, 
not,  and  dehiscere,  to  gape  wide  open),  that  is,  they  do  not  open 
spontaneously ;  others,  on  the  contrary,  open  of  themselves,  and 
are  called  for  this  reason,  dehiscent.     In  simple  fruits,  the  open- 
ing generally  takes  place  at  the  agglutinated  edges  of  the  carpel, 
or  by  this  and  the  dorsal  edge  at  the  same  time,  so  that  the  fruit 
is  divided  into  two  pieces  called  valves.     In  the  compound  fruits, 

17.  What  is  meant  by  the  dorsal  and  ventral  edges  of  a  carpel  ? 

18.  Have  all  flowers  the  same  number  of  carpels?     What  is  meant  by 
an  aggregate  fruit  ? 

19.  What  is  meant  by  an  indehiscent  fruit  ?     What  is  a  dehiscent  fruit  1 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS.  89 

we  sometimes  see  the  different  carpels  separate  and  fall  singly 
then  remain  closed,  or  open  in  the  same  way  as  the  simple  fruits; 
sometimes  also  the  back  of  each  cell  is  torn  without  the  carpels 
being  separated. 

The  differences  that  we  have  pointed  out  in  the  conformation 
of  fruits  and  the  principal  variations  of  form  which  they  present, 
have  led  botanists  to  class  them  as  follows : 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS. 

20.  All  fruits  are  included  in  three  classes. 

21.  The  first  CLASS  is  composed  of  the  SIMPLE  or  APOCARPOUS 
fruits,  formed  of  a  single  carpel  or  of  several  free  carpels. 

The  first  division  of  this  class  includes  what  are  termed  dry 
fruits,  having  a  thin  pericarp  and  being  but  slightly  furnished 
with  juices,  and  generally  contain  only  a  small  number  of  seeds. 

22.  This  division  contains  two  varieties ;  the  first  are  the  in- 
dehiscent,  simple  fruits :  under  this  head  we  have  the  three  fol- 
lowing forms : 

Caryopsis.  —  Fruit  monospermatic  (from  the  Greek,  monos, 
single,  and  sperma,  seed,  having  one  seed)  and  indehiscent,  the 
pericarp  of  which  is  very  thin,  and  intimately  connected  with  the 
seed,  as  wheat,  barley,  rice,  oats,  &c. 

Akene  or  achenium  (from  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and  chaind, 
I  gape).  —  Fruit  monospermatic  and  indehiscent,  the  pericarp  of 
which  is  distinct  from  the  proper  covering  of  the  seed,  as  in 
hemp,  sunflower,  &c. 

Gland  or  nut.  —  Fruit  unilocular  (from  the  Latin,  unus,  one, 
and  loculus,  partition,  seed-vessel  not  separated  into  cells)  and 
therefore  monospermatic,  from  the  constant  abortion  of  all  the 
ovules  except  one  ;*  the  coriaceous  or  woody  pericarp  of  this  one 
presents  at  its  summit  vestiges  of  the  limb  of  the  calyx,  and  is 
enclosed,  either  partly  or  entirely,  in  a  kind  of  involucrum  called 
cupule,  as  in  the  oak. 

23.  The  second  variety  of  the  first  division  of  the  first  class 
contains  the  three  following  dehiscent  fruits  : 

*  If  we  regarded  the  carpels  which  constantly  abort  in  glands,  ache- 
niums,  &c.,  we  must  place  these  in  the  class  of  compound  fruits  ;  but  most 
botanists  place  them  here,  because,  at  maturity,  they  are  essentially  com 
posed  of  a  single  carpel. 


20.  How  are  fruits  classified  ? 

21.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  fruits  of  the  first  class? 

22.  What  is  a  caryopsis  ?     What  is  an  achenium  ?     What  is  a  gland  or 
nut? 

23.  What  is  a  follicula  ?     What  is  a  legume  ?    What  is  a  lomentum  ? 

8* 


90  FORMS  OF  FRUITS. 

FoLlicula  (little  bag  —  follicle).  —  Fruit  ordinarily 
membranous,  opening  longitudinally  on  the  ventral 
surface,  as  the  larkspur,  senna,  &c. 

Legume  or  husk.  —  Fruit  which  is  ordinarily  mem- 
branous, elongated,  and  compressed  in  form, 
opens  longitudinally  both  by  the  ventral  and 
dorsal    suture   at   the   same   time,  as  peas, 
beans,  &c.  (Jig.  118). 

Lomentum.  —  Fruit  similar  to  a  pod  or 
legume,  but  contracted  at  different  points, 
forming  partitions  which  result  from  the 
cohesion  of  the  two  faces  of  the  carpel,  and 
opening  by  transverse  sections,  as  in  Cassia 
3-  fistula  (fig.  119). 

24.  The  second  division  of  the  first  class  contains 
fleshy  fruits,  having  a  thick,  pulpy,  and  succulent 
pericarp  ;  they  are  never  dehiscent. 

It  contains  the  two  following  forms : 

Drupe.  —  Fruit  fleshy,  enclosing  a  nut  internally 

(the  mesocarp  being  fleshy  and  very  thick,  and  the 

endocarp   coriaceous,   or   bony),  as   the   peach,  the     Fig.  119. 

apricot,  the  cherry,  &c.  CASSIA- 

Nut. — Fruit  similar  to  a  drupe,  but  the  mesocarp  is  less  thick, 

and  constitutes  what  is  called  a  shell  (as  the  fruit  of  the  almond). 

Sometimes  these  fruits,  in  place  of  being  isolated,  are  grouped 

together  on  a  fleshy  gymnophore  so  as  to  resemble  a  compound 

fruit,  as  in  the  strawberry  and  raspberry. 

25.  The  SECOND  CLASS  is  composed  of  fruits  that  are  COM- 
POUND or  SYNCARPOUS  (from  the  Greek,  sun,  with,  and  karpos, 
carpel  or  fruit) :  they  are  formed  of  several  carpels  of  the  same 
flower  agglutinated  together. 

26.  The  fruits  of  the  first  division  of  the  second  class  are  free, 
not  being  united  to  the  calyx  or  perigon  through  the  medium  of 
the  torus.     The  first  variety  contains  the  two  following  dehiscent 
fruits : 

Silique  or  siliqua.  —  Fruit  dry,  analogous  to  a  legume,  but 
bilocular  (from  the  Latin,  bis,  two,  and  loculus,  partition),  and 
having  the  seeds  attached  upon  the  two  edges  of  the  partition  in 
each  cell,  as  the  cabbage,  rose,  &c. 

Capsule.  —  Fruit  dry,  formed  of  two  or  more  carpels  united 
together,  and  opening  in  different  ways,  but  not  bivalve,  as  the 

poppy- 

24.  What  is  a  drupe  ?     What  is  a  nut  ? 

25.  What  are  compound  fruits  ? 

26.  What  is  a  silique  ?    What  is  a  capsule  ?  :.+•'*,& 


FORMS  OF  FRUITS.  91 

27.  The  second  variety  of  the  first  division  of  the  second  class 
consists  of  the  following  indehiscent  fruit : 

Hesperide  —  orange.  —  Fruit  fleshy,  composed  of  a  common 
epicarp,  and  several  cells  formed  by  the  endocarp  of  different 
carpels,  and  filled  with  a  sort  of  pulp,  as  the  orange,  citron,  &c. 

The  fruits  of  the  second  division  of  the  second  class  are 
adherent,  being  united  to  the  calyx  or  perigon  through  the  medium 
of  the  torus. 

28.  The  first  variety  of  this  division  contains  fleshy  or  pulpy 
fruits. 

Pome  or  apple.  —  Fruit  composed  of  several  indehiscent  car- 
pels with  a  cartilaginous  or  bony  pericarp,  completely  enveloped 
by  a  fleshy  indehiscent  calyx  to  which  they  are  agglutinated,  as 
the  apple,  pear,  medlar,  &c. 

Melonide  or  pepo.  —  Fruit  unilocular,  formed  of  several  inde- 
hiscent carpels  with  edges  not  infolded,  and  enclosing  numerous 
seeds  surrounded  by  a  pulp,  as  melons,  gourds,  &c. 

Berry.  —  Fruit  multilocular,  indehiscent,  semi-fluid  internally, 
as  gooseberries,  &c. 

The  second  variety  includes  dry  fruits  and  certain  adherent 
.japsules,  &c. 

29.  The  THIRD  CLASS  is  composed  of  fruits  that  are  AGGRE- 
GATED or  POLYANTHOCARPOUS  (from  the  Greek,  polus,  many, 
anthos,   flower,   and   karpos,   fruit,    fruit   from    many  flowers), 
because  these  fruits  are  formed  by  the  approximation  or  aggluti- 
nation of  the  fruits  of  many  flowers.     The  three  following  are 
placed  in  this  class  : 

Cone. — An  assemblage  of  sessile  fruits  concealed  at  the  base 
of  convex  scales  formed  by  bracts,  or  by  a  ligneous  pericarp,  as 
the  pine,  savin,  &c. 

Sycone. — An  assemblage  of  very  small  fruits  analogous  to 
drupes,  enclosed  in  a  fleshy  concave  receptacle,  as  figs  ( fig.  78). 

Sorose. — An  assemblage  of  fruits  attached  to  a  single  body,  by 
means  of  their  floral  envelopes,  which  are  fleshy  and  united  so  as 
to  resemble  a  mammalated  berry,  as  the  mulberry,  &c. 

"  Of  the  terms  above  explained  only  a  few  are  in  common  use,  and  it 
seems  to  be  found  by  systematic  botanists  more  convenient  to  describe  a 
given  fruit  by  exact  words,  than  to  use  any  particular  term.  The  names 
most  employed  are  achenium,  nut,  caryopsis,  drupe,  capsule,  siliqua,  legume, 
and  cone." — Lindley. 

27.  What  is  a  hesperide  ? 

28.  What  is  a  pome  ?     What  is  a  pepo  ?     What  is  a  berry  ? 

29.  What  are  aggregated  fruits  ?     What  is  a  cone  ?     What  is  a  sycono  ? 
What  is  a  sorose  ? 


92 


SEEDS. 


Fig.  120. 


OF  SEEDS. 

30.  The  seeds,  which,  during  the  early  period  of 
their  development,  are  called  ovules,  are  produced  in 
the  interior  of  the  cells  of  the  carpel  or  ovary,  along 
the  ventral  suture  of  this  organ  (jig*  120). 

31.  That  part  of  the  carpel  from  which  the  seeds 
spring  is  named  the  placenta  or  trophosperm  (from 
the  Greek,  trepho,  I  nourish,  and  sperma,  seed,  seed- 
nourisher),  and  the   stalk  or  thread  by  which   the 
seeds  are  attached  to  it,  we  call  the  funicula  (Latin, 
little  cord)  or  podosperm  (from  the  Greek,  pous,  in 
the  genitive,  podos,  foot,  and  sperma,  seed,  seed-foot 
or  seed-stalk). 

32.  The   funicula   in    general   resembles    a   little 
pedicle,   and   its   extremity   is   expanded    sometimes 
around  the  seed  so  as  to  envelope  it  more  or  less, 
and   constitute   what    is    named   the   aril    (arillus). 

Sometimes  this  expansion  of  the  funicula  is  thick  and  fleshy ; 
sometimes  thin  and  membranous ;  its  form  varies  considerably. 
In  the  nutmeg  tree,  for  example,  the  aril  forms  a  fleshy  lamina 
of  a  bright  red,  divided*  in  shreds  which  envelope  the  nutmeg, 
and  constitutes  the  spice  called  mace.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  aril  is  found  only  in  those  plants  that  have  a  monope- 
lalous  corolla. 

33.  The  seed  itself  is  the  part  of  the  perfect  fruit  contained  in 
the  interior  of  the  carpel,  and  encloses  the  body  which  is  destined 
to  become  the  new  plant.  The  point  by  which  it  adheres  to  its 
funicula,  generally  has  the  appearance  of  a  small  scar  or  cicatrix, 
and  is  called  the  hilum.  Finally,  the  seed  is  composed  of  two  series 
of  organs ;  namely,  the  accessory  parts,  and  the  essential  parts. 

34.  The   accessory   parts   of   the   seed   are 
divided  into  the  spermoderm  (from  the  Greek, 
sperma,   seed,   and   derma,   skin)  or  episperm 
(from  the  Greek,  epit  upon,  and  sperma,  seed), 
and  the  albumen  ;  the  essential  part  is  called  the 
embryo  (jig-  121). 

35.  The  spermoderm  or  skin  of  the  seed  is 
Fig.  121.         sometimes  a  simple  membrane,  and  sometimes  a 

Explanation  of  Fig.  121. — The  seed  of  a  bean,  split  open  to  show  the 
spermoderm  (a),  the  plumule  (c),  and  the  radicle  (6). 

30.  Where  are  seeds  formed  ?     What  are  ovules  ? 

31.  What  is  the  placenta  ?     What  is  the  funicula? 

32.  What  is  the  aril  ?    What  is  mace  ? 

33.  What  is  the  hilum  ? 

34.  What  constitutes  the  accessory  parts  of  the  seed  ? 

35.  What  is  the  spermoderm  ? 


PARTS  OF  SEEDS. 


covering  composed  of  two  or  even  three  coats.  The  nutritious 
vessels  of  the  seed,  which  come  from  the  trophosperm,  ramify  in 
the  thickness  of  this  seed-covering,  and  we  usually  perceive  near 
the  centre  of  the  hilum  a  minute  hole,  which  gives  them  a  free 
passage. 

33.  The  al'bumen,  also  called  perisperm  (from  the  Greek,  peri, 
around,  and  sperma,  seed)  or  endosperm  (from  the  Greek,  endon, 
within,  and  sperma,  seed) ;  the  albumen  is  a  body  intermediate 
between  the  spermoderm  and  the  embryo,  which  surrounds  the 
latter  (embryo)  and  ordinarily  constitutes  a  depot  of  nutritive 
matter.  In  general  it  is  formed  of  a  kind  of  cellular  tissue,  in 
which  is  found  the  fecula,  as  in  wheat;  at  other  times  it  encloses 
fatty  matter,  as  in  the  castor  oil  plant  (palma  christi) ;  frequently 
it  is  very  thin,  and  sometimes  it  is  entirely  wanting. 

37.  The  embryo  or  essential  part  of  the  seed  is  the  rudiment 
of  the  new  plant  which   the  seed   is   destined  to  produce.     In 
plants  unprovided  with  albumen  or  perisperm,  the  embryo  con- 
sists of  a  single  kernel  or  almond,  and  fills  the  sperrnoderm.     In 
this  case  we  call  it  an  epispermatic  embryo,  because  it  is  covered 
immediately  by  the  epispenn,  or  internal  layer  of  the  spermoderm. 
But  in  plants  that  are  provided  with  an  albumen,  the  kernel  is 
composed  of  the  latter  united  to  the  embryo.     (In  this  instance  it 
is  termed  an  endospermatic  embryo.}    In  this  latter  case  the  posi- 
tion of  the  embryo  may  vary  considerably  ;  sometimes  it  is  sim- 
ply applied  upon  a  point  of  the  surface  of  the  albumen,  which 
presents  for  its  reception  a  little  pit  (fossette),  as  in  the  grain  of 
wheat,  or  it  may  be  rolled  around  the  albumen  so  as  to  envelope 
it,  more  or  less  completely ;  it  is  then  said  to  be  extra :  at  other 
times  it  is  entirely  enclosed  in  the  interior  of  the  albumen,  and 
then  takes  the  name  ofintra  embryo,  as  in  the  castor-oil  seed. 

38.  We  distinguish  in  the  embryo,  that  is, 
in  the  young  plant  which  is  still  enclosed  in 
the  seed,  three  principal  parts  ;  the  radicle,  the 
plumule^  and  the  cotyledons  (figs.  121  and 
122). 

39.  The  radicle  (fgs.  124  and  125)  is  the 
young  root,  which  before  germination  is  al- 
ways simple,  but  by   development  it  is  more 

or  less  divided,  and  constantly  tends  towards  the  centre  of  the 
earth. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  122. — The  seed  of  a  bean : — a,  the  coty'ledons ;— ft, 
the  radicle. 

36.  What  is  the  albumen  ? 

37.  What  is  the  embryo  ? 

38.  What  parts  are  distinguished  in  the  embryo  ? 

39.  What  is  the  radicle  ? 


94  COTYLEDONS. 


40.  The  plumule  (Jigs.  121,  c,  and  125,  d]  or  young  stem  is 
sometimes  scarcely  visible  before  germination ;  at  other  times  it 
is  as  long  as  the  radicle  with  which  it  is  inferiorly  continuous : 
by  development  it  becomes  elongated  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
that  of  the  root,  and  consequently  it  always  tends  to  rise.  We 
distinguish  in  it  two  parts,  namely :  the  stemmule  and  the  gemmule, 
situate  one  above  and  the  other  below  the  coty'ledons. 

41.  The    coty'ledons    are   lateral    appendages 
which  represent  the  first  leaves  (Jig.  123).    They" 
are  almost  always  thick  and  fleshy  in  plants  un- 
provided with  albumen,  but  thin  and  membranous 
in  endospermntic  seeds.     Their  use  seems  to  be  to 
furnish  the  young  plant  with  the  first  alimentary 
matter,  and  their  number  is  various ;  sometimes 

there  is  but  one  and  at  others  there  are  two  or 
Fig.  123. 

COTYLEDON.  ,  _       ,-,,  ,  ,  .    „  ,  , 

42.  Plants  whose  seeds  contain  only  a  single 
coty'ledon,  are  named  monocot.y 'ledons  (from  the  Greek,  monos, 
single,  and  kotuledbn,  seed-lobe) ;  those  whose  seeds  contain  two 
or  more  coty'ledons,  are  named  dicoty 'ledons  (from  the  Greek,  dis, 
two,  and  kotuleddn,  seed-lobe). 

&"•-  x=*r^\  The  annexed  figure  (124) 

a--"|jglin\  represents  the  section  of  a 

seed  of  a  monoeoty'ledon  in 
process  of  germination, 
showing  the  perisperm  (a) ; 
the  summit  of  the  single 
coty'ledon  (&)  ;  the  base  of 
the  coty'ledon,  forming  a 
sort  of  tube  (c) ;  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  base  we  see  the 
plumule  (d),  which  sets  upon 
the  radicle  (e). 

Figure  125  represents  the  same  seed,  further         Fig.  125. 
advanced  in  germination,  after  the  appearance        COTYLEDON. 
of  the  plumule  or  young  stem  (d). 

43.  When  the  seeds  are  ripe  or  a  short  time  afterwards,  they 
separate  from  the  plant;  sometimes  the  fruit  opens  spontaneously 
to  permit  their  escape ;  at  other  times  they  are  detached  without 

Explanation  of  Fig.  123. — A  seed  in  process  of  germination : — c,  base  of 
the  cotyledon. 

40.  What  is  the  plumule  ?     (Plumule  :  from  the  Latin  plumula,  a  little 
feather.) 

41.  What  are  coty'ledons  ?     What  is  their  use  ? 

42.  What  is  meant  by  a  monoeoty'ledon  ?     What  is  dicoty'ledon  ? 

43.  How  are  seeds  naturally  distributed  ? 


GERMINATION.  95 


its  opening,  and  the  pericarp  is  sown  entire,  or  in  part,  with  the 
seed.  Most  seeds  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  nature 
resorts  to  various  means  to  secure  their  dispersion  :  sometimes 
they  are  surmounted  by  a  little  plume  which  takes  the  wind  ;  at 
other  times  they  are  furnished  with  wings,  so  as  to  be  readily 
carried  to  a  distance ;  they  are  often  conveyed  to  great  distances 
by  the  currents  of  rivers  or  of  the  sea ;  and  occasionally  their 
dissemination  is  effected  in  a  still  more  singular  manner,  for  it 
frequently  happens  that  birds  eat  fruits,  the  seeds  of  which  they 
do  not  digest,  but  afterwards  discharge  at  some  more  or  less 
distant  place,  where  they  germinate  and  grow. 

44.  The  number  of  seeds  produced  by  most  plants  is  so  con 
siderable  that  if  every  seed  germinated,  the  product  of  some 
square  leagues  of  land  would  be  equivalent,  according  to  several 
calculations,  to  the  vegetation  of  the  whole  world.  For  example, 
160,000  seeds  have  been  counted  on  a  single  stalk  of  tobacco, 
arid  629,000  on  an  elm.  But  this  seeming  prodigality  on  nature's 
part  is  only  a  wise  precaution  against  the  numerous  causes  of 
destruction  to  which  they  are  exposed. 


OF  GERMINATION. 

45.  The  term  germination  is  applied  to  the  series  of  pheno- 
mena that  a  seed  presents,  in  effecting  the  development  of  the 
embryo  it  contains.  Germination  cannot  take  place  except  under 
a  concurrence  of  circumstances  dependent  on  the  seed  itself  and 
external  influences.  The  seed  must  be  ripe,  enclose  a  complete 
embryo,  and  not  be  too  old.  There  are  some  seeds  that  retain 
the  faculty  of  germinating  for  a  very  long  time ;  wheat  and  beans 
enjoy  this  property  for  sixty  and  even  a  hundred  years,  while 
coffee,  on  the  contrary,  loses  it  in  a  very  short  time.  Some,  when 
protected  from  contact  with  the  air,  preserve  their  germinative 
faculty  for  a  long  period  :  on  the  other  hand,  the  seed  must  be 
subject  to  the  action  of  certain  external  agents,  the  chief  of  which 
are  water,  heat,  and  air.  Water  is  indispensable  to  germination  ; 
it  acts  by  penetrating  the  substance  of  the  seed,  by  softening  its 
envelopes,  by  causing  the  embryo  to  swell,  and  by  bringing  about 
in  the  endosperm  or  in  the  coty'ledons,  chemical  changes,  which 
render  the  substances  deposited  in  their  paren'chyma  (from  the 
Greek,  paregchuein,  to  strain  through, — the  spongy  and  cellular 
tissue  of  organized  bodies)  fit  to  nourish  the  young  plant.  Heat 
is  also  necessary :  below  a  certain  temperature  the  seed  remains 

4<J.  Are  the  seeds  of  plants  very  numerous  ? 

45.  What  is  meant  by  germination  ?  What  circumstances  are  essential 
to  germination  ? 


96 


GERMINATION. 


inactive;  too  much  heat  destroys  the  vegetative  power;  the 
extreme  limits  are  between  thirty-two  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty-two  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  The  presence 
of  air  is  as  indispensable  to  the  germination  of  seeds,  or  at  least 
to  their  development,  as  it  is  to  the  respiration  of  animals.  It 
acts  through  the  means  of  the  oxygen  it  contains ;  seeds  placed 
in  contact  with  this  gas  are  stimulated  in  their  germination. 
Light,  on  the  contrary,  hinders  or  at  least  retards  it  much. 

46.  The  first  phenomenon  observed  in  germination  is  the 
swelling  of  the  seed  and  the  softening  of  its  envelopes ;  the  time 
at  which  the  latter  burst  varies  in  different  plants ;  the  manner 
of  this  rupture  is  either  regular  or  irregular.  From  this  moment 


Fig.  126. 


we  observe  the  embryo,which 
is  at  this  period  termed  plan- 
tule  (diminutive  plant),  begin 
to  develope  (figs.  126  and 
127),  we  observe  its  two 
extremities  which  constantly 
grow  in  opposite  directions  ; 
.j  the  gemmule,  called  the  as- 
cending caudex,  is  directed 
towards  the  air  and  light ; 
the  radicle  or  descending 
caudex  tends  to  bury  itself  in 
the  ground.  The  substance 
of  the  coty'ledons  liquefies  ; 
it  becomes  milky  and  serves 
for  the  nourishment  of  the 
plantule;  the  perisperm  un- 
dergoes an  analogous  trans- 
formation and  appears  to 
perform  the  same  function. 
While  the  radicle,  by  pene- 
trating the  earth,  gives  rise 
to  delicate  little  ramifications, 
the  stemmule  lengthens  and 
raises  up  the  coty'ledons. 
The  gemmule  is  at  once  free 


d 


Fig.  127. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  126. — Seed  of  a  bean  in  a  state  of  germination ; — a, 
the  spermoderm  split ; — 6,  coty'ledons  ; — c,  radicle ; — d,  plumule. 

Fig.  127. — The  same  bean  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  development; — 
a,  radicle ; — 6,  collum  or  neck ; — c,  the  stemmule ; — </,  the  cotyle'donous 
leaves. 

46.  What  is  the  first  phenomenon  observed  in  germination  ?  What  is 
the  ascending  caudex  ?  What  is  the  descending  caudex  ?  When  does 
germination  cease  ? 


GERMINATION.  97 


and  uncovered ;  the  little  leaves  of  which  it  is  composed  expand, 
increase  in  size,  become  green,  and  begin  to  draw  from  the 
atmosphere  a  portion  of  the  fluids  which  nourish  the  young  plant. 
The  act  of  germination  is  now  at  an  end,  and  nutrition  goes  on 
as  we  described  it  when  speaking  particularly  of  this  function. 

47.  All  seeds  do  not  require  the  same  period  of  time  for  their 
germination.     For  instance,  certain   cresses   germinate  in  two 
days ;  the  turnip  and  bean  in  three  days ;  lettuce  in  four ;  the 
melon  in  five ;  most  of  the  grasses  in  six  or  seven  days  ;  the 
hyssop  in  a  month ;  the  peach  in  a  year,  and  rose  tree  in  two 
years,  &c. 

48.  What  we  have  hitherto  said  of  fructification  relates  entirely 
to  cotyle'donous  plants ;  and  we  have  still  to  say  a  few  words  of 
what  takes  place  in  acoty'ledons  (from  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and 
kotuledbn,  seed-lobe),  in  which  we  find  neither  flowers,  nor  seed, 
nor   embryo.     The  class  of  acoty'ledons   comprises   all   plants 
which  are  unprovided  with  true  organs  of  generation,  that  is, 
stamens  and  pistils ;  on  this  account  they  are  named  crypto' gam- 
ous  (from  the  Greek,  kruptos,  concealed,  and  gamos,  marriage) 
or  agamous  (from  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and  gamos,  marriage), 
and  are  produced  through  the  means  of  corpuscules,  analogous 
in  their  structure  and  development  to  the  bulbills  or  bulblets  of 
certain  perennial  plants.     These  corpuscules  (minute  bodies)  are 
named  sporules  or  seminules ;  they  are  contained  in  envelopes 
called  conceptades,  and  are  variously  placed  either  in  the  interior 
of  the  plant  itself,  or  (but  more  rarely)  on  its  exterior  in  the  form 
of  tubercles,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  his- 
tory of  these  plants. 

47.  Do  all  seeds  require  the  same  time  for  germination  ? 

48.  What  are  acoty'ledons  ?     What  plants  are  contained  in  the  class  of 
acoty'ledons  ?     What  are  crypto'gamous  plants  ? 


98  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS. 


LESSON  VI. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS. — Natural  and  artificial  Methods 
— Artificial  System  of  Linnceus — The  Natural  Method  of 
Jussieu. 

CRYPTO'GAMOUS  PLANTS.  —  Lichens,  Fungi,  Agarics,  Truffle, 
Algce,  Mosses,  Ferns. 

PHANERO'GAMOUS  PLANTS — Monocotyledons — Grasses — Wheat, 
Rye,  Barley,  Malt,  Oats,  Rice,  Maize,  Sugar-cane,  Sugar, 
Sugar -candy — Palms — Narcissus  —  Dicoty' ledons — Apetal- 
ous  Dicoty' ledons — Monopetalous  Dicoty' ledons — Potatoe,  To 
bacco,  Belladonna,  Olive,  Sage,  Coffee  —  Pof.ypetalous  Dico- 
ty'ledons — Hemlock,  Mallow,  Cotton,  Flax,  Orange,  Tea,  Vine 
Wine,  Poppy,  Sensitive  Plant,  Apple,  Pear,  Plum,  Cherry  t 
Apricot,  Peach,  Strawberry,  <SfC.  —  Diclinece  —  Hop,  Hemp, 
Elm,  Bread-fruit,  Oak,  Chestnut,  Ash,  Pine— Of  the  Uses  of 
Plants — Examples  of  ornamental  Plants. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS. 

1.  As  we  staled  when  beginning  the  natural  history  of  ani- 
mals, we   give  the  name  of  classification    to   any  arrangement 
designed  to  facilitate  the  determining  and  study  of  objects,  by 
separating  them  into  more  or  less  numerous  groups,  which,  in 
their  turn,  are  again  divided  and  subdivided  ;  and  by  assigning  to 
each  of  these  divisions  a  name  and  character  suitable  to  enable 
us  to  recognise  all  bodies  of  which  they  are  composed. 

2.  With  this  view  we  make  use  of  two  kinds  of  classifica- 
tion ;  one  called  an  artificial  system,  and  the  other  a  natural 
method.  >; 

3.  An  ARTIFICIAL  SYSTEM  or  classification  of  plants  is  a  mode 
of  arrangement  by  means  of  which  we    may  readily  obtain   a 
knowledge  of  the  name  of  a  plant,  by  examining  the  characters 
furnished  in  the  conformation  of  certain  parts  of  these  beings. 
In   this  kind  of  classification  we  divide  and  subdivide  the  vege- 
table kingdom  into  groups,  into  each  one  of  which  we  range  all 
those  plants  which  possess  a  certain  character,  selected  arbitrarily, 
and  exclude  all  those  that  do  not  possess  this  same  character, 
without  considering  whether  we  separate  in  this  way,  plants  that 
resemble   each   other   in    all    the    most  important   relations,  or 
whether  we  bring  together  in  the  same  division,  other  plants  that 

1.  What  is  meant  by  classification  ? 

2.  By  what  modes  are  plants  classified  ? 

3.  What  is  understood  by  the  artificial  method  or  system  of  classifica- 
tion ? 


NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  SYSTEMS. 


possess  scarcely  any  properly  in  common  with  each  other.  On 
this  principle  we  might  class  plants  according  to  the  variations 
observed  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  leaves,  or  of  the  corolla 
of  the  flower,  or  any  other  organ  ;  but  by  proceeding  in  this  way, 
we  should  learn  almost  nothing  in  relation  to  the  organization  of 
these  beings,  or  in  respect  to  the  degrees  of  resemblance  or  dis- 
similarity they  possess. 

4.  A  natural  method  or  classification  is,  on  the  contrary,  a 
sort  of  synoptical  table  of  all  the  modifications  that  nature  has 
produced  in  the  conformation  of  plants,  a  table  in  which  these 
modifications  are  arranged  according  to  their  relative  importance, 
and  serve  for  the  establishment  of  divisions  and  successive  sub- 
divisions.    In  consequence  of  this,  plants  arranged  according  to 
this  method  have  more  important  and  more  numerous  points  of 
resemblance  to  each  other  in  proportion  to  their  approximation  to 
each  other  in  the  classification ;  for  instance,  when  two  plants  are 
placed  in  two  different  divisions,  it  is  because  they  differ  from 
each  other  in  more  respects  than  either  of  them  differs  from  all 
the  other  plants  with  which  it  is  arranged,  and  these  differences 
are  less  important  between  different  species  of  the  same  genus 
than  between  the  different  genera  of  the  same  family.     Those 
characters  which  distinguish  the  families  from  each  other  are,  in 
their  turn,  of  less  importance  than  those  employed  to  separate 
from  each  other  the  groups  formed  by  the  union  of  several  of 
these  families,  and  so  on.     By  the  assistance  of  these  methods 
we  determine  the  name  of  a  plant  we  wish  to  know  with  less 
facility  than  by  an  artificial  system,  but  we  acquire  much  more 
important  knowledge,  because,  having  thus  ascertained  the  place 
a  plant  occupies  in  a  classification  of  this  kind,  we  know  the 
principal  features  of  its  mode  of  organization,  and  consequently 
its  physiological  history  also. 

5.  Botanists   have   successively   employed    different   artificial 
systems  and  the  natural  method  in  the  classification  of  plants. 
Among  the  first,  there  is  one  which,  from  its  simplicity,  and  the 
celebrity  it  for  a  long  time  enjoyed,  merits  being  cited  here ;  it  is 
the  System  of  Linnceus  (a  Swedish  botanist  who  died  in  1778), 
which  is  based  upon  the  differences  that  plants  present  in  the 
various  essential  parts  of  their  flowers,  but  especially  in  their 
stamens. 

6.  In  this   system  of  classification   plants   unprovided   with 
stamens  and  pistils  form  a  particular  class,  and  those  which  pos- 
sess these  organs  are  divided :  frst,  according  to  the  existence  of 
stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  flower,  or  in  different  flowers ; 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  natural  method  ? 

5.  Which  method  or  system  of  classification  is  employed  by  botanists  ? 

6.  Upon  what  principle  is  the  artificial  system  of  Linnaeus  based  ? 


100  LINN^EAN  SYSTEM. 


second^  according  to  the  cohesion  of  the  stamens  to  each  other  or 
with  the  pistil,  or  according  to  their  not  cohering ;  third,  accord- 
ing to  the  relative  length  of  the  stamens  ;  fourth,  according  to  the 
number  of  stamens,  &c. 

7.  The  first  eleven  classes  are  characterized  by  the  number  of 
stamens.    The  names  of  these  and  the  two  succeeding  classes  are 
formed  from  the  Greek  by  prefixing  the  proper  numerals  to  the 
word  nner  (man),  used  metaphorically  for  stamen. 

Class  1.  MOXAXDRIA  :  includes  all  plants  with  perfect  flowers  that 
have  but  one  stamen. 

2.  DIAXDRJA  :          two  stamens. 

3.  TRIANDRIA  :        three  stamens. 

4.  TETRAXDRIA  :      four  stamens. 

5.  PENTANDRIA  :      five  stamens. 
G.  HEXANDRIA  :       six  stamens. 

7.  HEPTAJJDRIA  :      seven  stamens. 

8.  OCTANDRIA  :        eight  stamens. 

9.  ENXEANDR.IA  :     nine  stamens. 

10.  DECANDRIA  :        ten  stamens. 

11.  DODECANDRIA  :   eleven  to  nineteen  stamens. 

8.  The  two  succeeding  classes  are  characterized  by  the  num- 
ber of  the  stamens  with  their  mode  of  insertion. 

12.  ICOSAXDRIA  :  twenty  or  more  stamens  which  are  attached 
to  or  stand  upon  the  calyx ;  as  in  the  apple,  cherry,  &,c. 

13.  POLYANDRIA:  twenty  or  more  stamens  which  do  not  ad- 
here to  the  calyx,  that  is,  the  stamens  are  hypogy'nous. 

9.  The  two  following  classes  are  characterized  by  the  relative 
length  of  their  stamens  : 

14.  DIDYNA'MIA    (from    the  Greek,   dis,  two,  and   dunamis, 
power) :  two  long  and  two  shorter  stamens,  as  in  mint. 

15.  TETRADYXA'MIA  (from  the  Greek,  tetleres,  four,  and  duna- 
mis, power) :  four  long,  and  two  short  stamens, — the  longer 
stamens  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  powerful. 

10.  The  four  following  classes  are  characterized  by  the  con- 
nexion of  the  stamens. 

16.  MOXODE'LPHIA   (from  the  Greek,  monos,  single,  and  del- 
phos,  brotherhood) :  having  the  filaments  of  all  the  stamens 
united  into  a  set  or  tube,  constituting  a  single  brotherhood , 
Example,  the  mallow. 

17.  DIABE'LPHIA    (from  the  Greek,   dis,  two,  and    delphos)  • 
having  the  filaments  of  the  stamens  united  in  two  sets,  as 
in  the  pea. 

7.  How  are  the  first  eleven  classes  of  the  Linnsean  system  named  and 
characterized  ? 

8.  How  is  the  class  Icosa'ndria  characterized  ?     How  is  the  class  Poly, 
andria  characterized  ? 

9.  How  is  the  class  Didyna'mia  recognised  ?     What  are  the  characters 
of  the  class  Tetradyria'mia  ? 

10.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  class  Monodelphia  ?     What  are  the 
characters  of  Dia'delphia?     What  are  the   characters  of  Polya'delpbia  ? 


LINN^JAN  SYSTEM.  101 


18.  POLYDE'LPHIA  (from  the  Greek,  polus,  many,  and  delphos) : 
having  the  filaments  of  the  stamens  united  into  more  than 
two  sets. 

19.  SYNGENE'SIA  (from  the  Greek,  'sun,  together,  and  geinomai, 
to  arise,  to  grow) :    having  the  stamens  united  by  their 
anthers  in  a  ring  or  tube,  as  in  the  sunflower. 

20.  GYNA'NDRIA  (from  the  Greek,  gune^  woman,  used  meta- 
phorically for  pistil,  and  oner,  stamen) :  having  the  stamens, 
in  appearance,  growing  out  of  the  pistil,  as  in  the  ladies' 
slipper. 

In  all  the  preceding  classes  the  flowers  are  perfect. 

11.  The  next  three  classes  are  characterized  by  the  stamens 
and  pistils  being  separately  contained  in  different  flowers. 

21.  MONOZ'CIA   (from   the   Greek,  monos,   single,    and   oikia, 
house) :  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  separate  flowers,  but 
both  grow  on  the  same  plant,  or  both  dwell  in  the  same 
house,  as  the  name  denotes. 

22.  DKE'CIA  (from  the  Greek,  dis,  two,  and  oikia} :  the  stamens 
and  pistils  are  not  only  in  separate  flowers,  but  on  different 
individuals, — they  are  in  two  households. 

23.  POLYGA'MIA  (from  the  Greek,  polus,  many,  and  gamos, 
marriage  or  union) :  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  separate 
in  some  flowers,  and  united  in  others,  all  on  the  same,  or 
on  two  or  three  individuals  of  the  same  species. 

12.  The  last  class  includes  flowers  in  which  neither  stamens 
nor  pistils  are  visible.     They  are  now  termed  flowerless  plants. 

24.  CRYPTOGA'MIA  (from  the  Greek,  kruptos,  concealed,  and 
gamos,  marriage) :  having  the  essential  organs  of  the  flower 
concealed  from  view. 

A  synoptical  view  of  the  Linua3an  classes   is   seen   in   the 
following : 

What  are  the  characters  of  Syngenesia?     What  are  the  characters  of 
Gynandria  ? 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  Monoecia  ?     What  are  the  characters  of 
Dicecia  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  Polygamia  ? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  class  Cryptoga'mia  ? 

9* 


102 


LINN^JAN  SYSTEM. 


PLANTS 


LINNJEAN  SYSTEM.  103 

13.  In  the  first  thirteen  classes  of  the  Linnsean  system,  the 
orders  are  founded  on  the  number  of  styles,  and  when  these  are 
wanting,  on  the  number  of  stigmas.     The  names  of  these  orders 
are  formed  by  prefixing  numerals  from  the  Greek  to  the  word 
gynia, — from  gune  (woman),  metaphorically  used  for  pistil. 

Order  1 .  MONOGYNIA  :  1  style,  or  sessile  stigma. 

2.  DIGYNIA  :  2  styles,  or  sessile  stigmas. 

3.  TRIGYNIA  :  3      " 

4.  TETRAGYNIA  :  4      " 

5.  PENTAGYNIA  :  5      u 

6.  HEXAGYNIA  :  6     " 

7.  HEPTAGYNIA  :  7      " 

8.  OCTAGYNIA  :  8     " 

9.  ENNEAGYMA  :  9      " 

10.  DECAGYNIA:      10      u 

11.  DODECAGYNIA  :  12,  or  about  twelve. 

12.  POLYGYNIA:        more  than  12. 

The  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  orders  are  very  rarely  found. 

14.  The  14th  class,  Didyna'mia,  contains  two  orders,  named 
and  characterized  as  follows  : 

GYMNOSPE'RMIA  (from  the  Greek,  gumnos,  naked,  and  sperma, 
seed) :  has  naked  seed,  commonly  four  in  number. 

ANGIOSPE'RMIA  (from  the  Greek,  aggeion,  a  vessel,  and  sperma, 
seed) :  has  the  seeds,  which  are  usually  numerous,  enclosed 
in  a  seed-vessel. 

lo.  The  15th  class,  Tetradyna'mia,  has  two  ordersj  distin- 
guished by  the  form  of  the  fruit. 

SILICULO'SA  :  fruit  a  silicle  or  roundish  pod. 
SILIQUO'SA  :  fruit  a  silique. 

16.  The   orders   of  the    16th,    17th,   and    18th   classes   are 
founded   on   the   characters  of  the  first  thirteen    classes.     For 
example,  the  mallow,  which  belongs  to  the  16th  class,  Monodel- 
phia,  has  more  than  20  stamens,  and  therefore  belongs  to  the 
order  Polyandria  of  that  class. 

17.  The  19th  class,  Syngenesia,  has  five  orders,  characterized 
by  the  nature  of  the  florets,  whether  perfect,  separated,  or  barren. 

1.  POLYGAMIA  ^EQUALIS  has  perfect  florets,  that  is,  furnished 
with  both  stamens  and  pistils.     Example,  the  thistle. 

2.  POLYGAMIA  SUFE'RFLUA  has  the  florets  of  the  disk  perfect, 
and  those  of  the  ray  furnished  with  pistils  only.     Example, 
the  aster. 


13.  On  what  characters  are  the  orders  of  the  first  13   classes  of  the 
Linnsean  system  founded  ? 

14.  What  are  the  orders  of  the  class  Didynamia  ? 

15.  What  are  the  orders  of  Tetradynamia  ? 

16.  On  what  characters  are  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  classes  founded  ? 

17.  What  are  the  orders  of  Syngenesia  ? 


104  NATURAL  METHOD. 

3.  POLYGAMIA  FRUSTRANEA  :  has  the,  florets  of  the  disk  per 
feet;  those  of  the  ray  without  either  stamens  or  pistils 
which  are  well  formed.     Example,  the  sunflower. 

4.  POLYGAMIA  NECESSARIA  :  has  the  florets  of  the  disk  with 
stamens  only,  the  stigmas  being  imperfect ;  and  those  of 
the  ray  with  pistils  only.     Example,  silphium. 

5.  POLYGAMIA  SEGREGATA  :  has  all  the  florets  perfect,  and  each 
floret  has  a  well  formed  calyx,  the  whole  being  enclosed  in 
an  involucre.     Example,  elephantopus. 

The  orders  of  the  20th,  21st,  and  22d  classes  are  for  the  most 
part  characterized  by  the  number  of  stamens. 

18.  The  23d  class,  Polygamia,  has  three  orders  founded  on 
the  immediately  preceding  orders. 

1.  MONOZCIA  has  both  separated  and  perfect  flowers  on  the 
same  individual. 

2.  DIOSCIA  :  when  one  individual  bears  the  perfect,  and  another 
the  two  kinds  of  separated  flowers. 

3.  TRICECIA  :  when  one  bears  the  perfect,  a  second  the  stami- 
nate,  and  a  third  the  pistillate  flowers. 

The  Ferns,  Mosses,  Algse,  Fungi,  &c.,  constitute  the  orders 
of  the  24th  class,  Cryptogamia . 

19.  The   basis  of  the   natural  method  was   proposed   by  a 
French  botanist,  Bernard  de  Jussieu,  and  this  classification,  per- 
fected by  the  labours  of  Antoine  Jussieu  (pronounced  jus-sue), 
and  the  botanists  of  his  school,  is  the  one  now  generally  adopted. 
According   to   this   classification,  we  bring  together,  in  groups 
called   genera,  all  the  species  of  plants  which    resemble   each 
other  throughout,  in  the  important  characters  of  their  organiza- 
tion ;  and  in  the  same  manner  we  bring  together,  into  divisions 
of  higher  rank,  named  natural  families,  the  different  genera, 
the  most  essential  organs  of  which  possess  an  analogous  mode 
of  structure:  then  we  group  together  the  natural  families  accord- 
ing to  the  same  principle,  and  finally  obtain  a  small  number  of 
divisions  which  comprise  all  the  subdivisions  we  have  mentioned 
above,  and  which,  by  their  union,  include  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom. 

20.  The  most  important  differences  among  plants,  consist  in 
the  absence  or  presence  of  flowers  or  organs  of  fructification, 
and  this  difference  almost  always  coincides  with  their  peculiar 
modes  of  organization  in  all  their  parts,  such  as  the  absence  or 
presence  of  distinct  vessels  in  the  tissue  of  the  plant.     There- 
lore,  in   a   natural   method,  we  must  first  divide  the  vegetable 
kingdom  into  two  groups ;  one  containing  plants  which  are  re- 
produced by  means  of  flowers,  and  the  other  including  plants 

18.  What  are  the  orders  of  the  class  Polygamia? 

19.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  natural  method  of  arranging  plants  ? 

20.  What  are  the  most  important  differences  among  plants  ?     Into  how 
many  groups  is  the  vegetable  kingdom  divided  ?     What  are  they  ? 


NATURAL  METHOD.  105 


which  are  not  multiplied  in  this  way,  and  unprovided  with  flowers. 
This  is,  in  fact,  the  course  followed  ;  we  ordinarily  designate  the 
first  of  these  divisions  under  the  name  of  cot.yle donous  or  pha- 
nerogamous plants,  and  the  second  under  the  name  of  acotyle'- 
donous  or  crypto' gamous  plants. 

21.  The  phanerogamous  (from  the  Greek,  phaneros,  evident, 
and  gamos,  marriage)  or  cotyle' donous  plants  all  resemble  each 
other  in  the  most  important  particulars  of  their  organization,  but 
nevertheless  very  greatly  differ  from  each  other ;  in  some,  the 
seed  contains  but  a  single  coty'ledon,  and  the  stem  is  en'dogen- 
ous ;  the  others  have  seeds  provided  with  two  or  more  cotyledons, 
and  an  ex'ogenous  stem ;  consequently  we  divide  them  into  two 
groups,  which  are  called  monocoty 'ledons  and  dicotyledons. 

22.  Among  the  crypto' gamous  plants,  there  are  some  which 
are  composed  exclusively  of  cellular  tissue,  and  do  not  possess 
any  distinct  organs  that  are  analogous  either  to  roots,  stems,  or 
leaves;  there  are  others  which,  although  composed  chiefly  of  cellu- 
lar tissue  like  the  first,  often  acquire  vessels  at  a  certain  period  of 
their  development,  and  are  provided  with  parts  analogous  to  tho 
roots  and  leaves  of  ordinary  plants.     In  order  that  the  classifies* 
tion  of  these  plants  be  natural,  that  is,  the  expression  of  the  more 
or  less  important  resemblances  or  differences  they  present,  we 
must,  therefore,  form  them  into  two  divisions ;  that  of  cellular 
plants  properly  so  called,  and  that  of  semi-vascular  plants. 

23.  We  subdivide  the  monocotyle'donous  and  dicotyle'donous 
plants  into  classes  according  to  the  structure  of  their  flowers,  and, 
to  characterize  the  groups  thus  formed,  we  ordinarily  take  into 
consideration,  first,  the  absence  or  existence  of  a  corolla,  &c., 
then   we   make   a   distinction    between   the   monopetalous    and 
polypetalous  corolla ;  then  we  consider  the  manner  of  insertion 
of  the  stamens  or  petals  when  they  possess  stamens.     Finally, 
the  classes  thus  formed  are  subdivided  into  natural  families  ac- 
cording as  nature  has  variously  modified  the  general  mode  of 
organization  of  the  seed,  of  the  fruit,  of  the  flower,  &c. 

The  following  table,  in  which  we  have  placed  the  most  import- 
ant natural  families,  shows  at  a  glance  the  successive  degrees 
through  which  we  arrive  at  the  division  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, according  to  the  natural  method  or  classification  of  Jus- 
sieu  : 

21.  In  what  respects  do  phanerogamous  plants  differ  from  each  other? 
How  are  phanero'gamous  plants  divided  ? 

22.  How  do  crypto'gamous  plants  differ  from  each  other?     How  are 
they  divided  ? 

23.  On  what  principle  are  these  divisions  subdivided  ? 


TABLE 

OF     THE 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS, 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  NATURAL  METHOD  OF  JUSSIEU. 


f  Cellulares. 

C  Algae. 
<  Fungi. 

5  v  •;>•  « 

f  Lichenes. 

'  Cryptoga'  mia  or  inembryonatze-^coiy/edons  -^ 

l  Hepa'lices. 

j.  Semi-vasculares. 

<  Aphylls?. 

(  Fi'lices. 

fife7b?lovvThTovar^:  j  Monohypogy>nea.<  Grami'nese. 

Stamen«  perigy'nous,  C 

(  Palmaj. 

Mmocoty1  le-  • 

fixed     on    the     calyx  <  Monoperigy1  nea. 
around  the  ovary.        ( 

<  Asphode'leae. 
(  Lilia'ceae. 

dons. 

Stamons    epigy  '  nous,  f 

fixed  on  the  upper  part^  Monoepigy'  nea. 

^  Iri'dete. 

I 

of  the  ovary.                  ( 
f  Stamens  epigy'nous.     ^  Epistami'  nea. 

^  Aristolo'chise. 

ih 

With-  <(  Stamens  perigy'nous.   ^  Peristami1  nea. 

•{  Lauri'neffi. 

1 

out  pe  | 

o 

00 

tals.    (.Stamens  hypogy'nous.<{  Hypostami1  nea. 

<(  Amaranta'cea;. 

3 

o 

0 

C  Sola'neae. 

a 

c 

f  Corolla  hypogy'  nous.    {  Hypocoro'  llea. 

<  Labia'tae. 

M 

"Q 

o 

s 

(  Convolvula'ceaB. 

s 

Mono-^  Corolla  perigy'nous.     <{  Pericoro'  llea. 

•{  Campanula'cete. 

te  or  Phai 

aphrodite 

P!1^1"      Corolla  (  8  f  Anthers  (  ^ 
OU8'        epigy-  JfJ  united.  |  ^-"^'r-. 
1     nous,    f  S  '  Anthers  (  _    . 
.|L  distinct.  \Consanthe'  rea. 

•{  Synanthe'reee. 
•{  Rubia'ceae. 

a 

C 

- 

Stamens  epigy'nous.     •{  Epipeta'lea. 

^  Umbelli'  ferae. 

o 

1 

">, 

fRanuncula'ceae. 

jt 

Malva'ceae. 

S 

1  Aurantia'cea?. 

w 

« 

c 

K 

Poly- 

Stamens  hypogy'  nous.  •(  Hy  pop  eta'  lea. 

•I  Papavera'cea?. 

s 

pet  ill-  - 

Cruci'  ferae. 

1 

one 

1  Caryophi'lleas. 

J' 

LAmpeli'deae,  Vite? 

.§ 

f  Ficoi'deae. 

Q 

Cucurbita'ceae. 

.Stamens  perigy'nous.    ^  Peripeta'  lea. 

J  Myrta'ces3. 
1  Rosa'ceffi. 

Legumino'see. 
LTerebintha'cae. 

fEuphorbia'cess 

Flowers  unisexual,  borne  on  two  (  „.,..,   „ 
individuals.                                       |  ***  ncd!- 

Urti'ceae. 
«(  Cupuli'  ferae. 
|  Coni'feras. 

tCyca'deas. 

(106) 

CELLULAR  PLANTS.— LICHENS.  107 

CRYPTO'GAMOUS  PLANTS. 

Division  of  Cryptoga'mia.     (See  table  on  page  102.) 

24.  Crypto' gamous    plants    are   constituted    exclusively,   or 
chiefly  of  cells,  and  during  the  first  period  of  their  growth,  or 
even  throughout  their  existence,  are  unprovided  with  vessels  and 
stigmas ;  they  also  differ  from  phanero' gamous    plants  in  their 
mode  of  propagation,  for  their  multiplication  always  takes  place 
without  the   aid  of  various    reproductive   organs,  analogous   to 
stamens   and    pistils,  and  is   effected  by  the  division  or  by  the 
development  of  sporules,  bodies  which    resemble   the   seeds   of 
ordinary  plants,  but  have  no  protecting  envelope  like  a  pericarp, 
nor  a  depot  of  nutritive  matter  similar  to  the  albumen,  or  to 
cotyledons.     We  divide  these  plants  into  two  groups;  cellular 
plants  properly  so  called,  and  semi-vascular  plants. 

25.  CELLULAR  PLANTS  properly  so  called  are  composed  ex- 
clusively,  and  at  all  periods  of  their  existence,  of  cellular  tissue, 
which  forms   a  homogeneous   mass  and  is  rarely  green ;  their 
forms,  which  are  very  various,  do  not  at  all  resemble  those  of 
ordinary  plants  ;  we  can  distinguish  in  these  plants  neither  roots 
nor  organs  similar  to  stems  or  leaves,  and  absorption  seems  to 
take  place  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  their  surface.     When 
their  tissue  is  membranous  and  flat,  we  give  the  part  thus  con- 
stituted the  name  of  thallus,  and  when  branched  and  spread  out, 
it  constitutes  what  is  called  a  frond  or  frons.     The  sporules  are 
sometimes  naked,  sometimes  contained  in  one  or  more  membran- 
ous sacks  which  seem  to  be  ordinary  cells. 

26.  This  group  is  divided  into  three  natural  families;  Lichenes, 
Fungi,  and  Alga3. 

27.  LICHENS  are  perennial  plants  which  grow  upon  the  trunks 
of  trees,  on  rocks,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  are  com- 
posed of  a  thallus  (possibly  from  the  Greek,  thaleia,  the  bloom- 
ing one)  having  the  appearance  of  filaments,  of  foliaceous  mem- 
branes or  hardened  pulve'rulent  crusts.     This  thallus  consists  of 
two  layers,  one  external  or  cortical,  variously  coloured,  but  never 
green ;  and  an  internal  or  medullary,  which  often  contains  green 
matter  and  gives  origin  to  young  plants,  either  by  the  division  of 
its  tissue  or  by  the  production  of  spores  (from  the  Greek,  spora, 

24.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  crypto'gamous  plants?     How  do 
they  differ  from  phanero'gamous  plants  ?     What  are  sporules  ?     How  are 
crypto'gamous  plants  divided  ? 

25.  What  are   the   general   characters  of  cellular   plants  ?     What  is  a 
thallus?    What  is  a  frond  ?  . 

26.  How  are  cellular  plants  divided  ? 

27.  What  are  lichens  ?    What  is  the  character  of  the  thallus  in  lichens  ff 


108  MUSHROOMS. 


seed)  called  apothecum  or  scutum  (Latin,  a  shield),  because  their 
form  is  frequently  like  that  of  a  small  shield. 

28.  There   are   more   than  two  thousand    species  of  lichens 
known ;  they  grow  in  the  most  arid  places,  and  constitute  the 
greater  part  of  the  vegetation  of  the  regions  near  the  pole.     One 
species,  the  cenomy'ce  range-ferina  (reindeer)  (cenomy'ce,  from 
the  Greek,  kenos,  empty,  and  mukes,  a  minute  fungus),  forms  the 
food  of  the  reindeers  of  Lapland  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
and  several  are  used  as  dye-stuffs,  as  the  archil. 

29.  The  FUNGI,  mushrooms,  are  plants  of  various  forms,  and 
are   never   green.     In    general,   they  consist   of  cellular   tissue 
c  -  -^aiiim^.  formed  into  globular  masses,  or  having  a 

peduncle  (Jig-  128,  d)  surmounted  by  a 
cap,  pileus  (c),  which  is  ordinarily  convex, 
and  the  inferior  surface  is  furnished  with 
radiating  laminse  (fig'  128).  They  are 
distinguished  from  lichens  and  algae  by  the 
absence  offrons  or  crust,  bearing  organs  of 
fructification.  The  sporules  are  sometimes 

„.  naked,  and  sometimes  enclosed  in  little  cap- 

Fig.  128. — MUSHROOM.          ,  , 

sules ;    in  common  mushrooms,  the   union 

of  these  capsules  constitutes  a  membrane  named  the  hyme'nium 
(from  the  Greek,  umen,  a  membrane),  which  is  ordinarily  plaited, 
and  covers,  entirely  or  in  part,  the  surface  of  the  plant.  These 
sporules  become  free,  sometimes  by  the  rupture  of  their  envelope, 
sometimes  by  the  decay  of  the  tissue  which  surrounds  them  ;  and 
when  they  germinate,  we  observe  arising  from  them  white  fila- 
ments upon  which  spring  bodies,  from  point  to  point,  that  seem- 
ingly  constitute  the  mushroom,  but  in  reality  they  appear  to  be 
only  the  spores,  that  is,  the  reproductive  organs.  These  plants 
are  developed,  in  general,  in  shady,  damp,  and  warm  situations, 
and  are  found  especially  numerous  where  organic  matters  in  a 
state  of  putrefaction  abound ;  many  live  as  parasites  upon  peren- 
nial plants,  and  some  grow  on  the  surface  of  water,  but  most  of 
them  inhabit  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  are  buried  in  the  soil ; 
sometimes  they  grow  with  extraordinary  rapidity ;  frequently  we 
see  thousands  of  mushrooms  growing  up  in  a  single  night,  and 
the  greater  part  of  them  do  not  live  beyond  a  few  days  at  most  ; 
there  are  some  however  that  grow  slowly  and  live  many  years. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  128. —  A  mushroom  (fungus);  —  a,  6,  the  volva   or 
wrapper ; — c,  the  pileus  or  cap ; — J,  the  peduncle  or  stipe. 

28.  How  many  species  of  lichens  are  known  ?     To  what  uses  are  lichens 
applied  ? 

29.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  fungi  ?     What  is  a  hyme'nium  ? 
Where  are  fungi  found  ? 


AGARICS.  109 


30.  This  family  is  very  numerous,  and  is  divided  into  several 
groups,  the  most  important  of  which  are  agarics  or  mushrooms, 
properly  so   called,  lycopodia'cece,  and   the   rnuscidinea,  moss 
tribe. 

31.  Agarics  or  mushrooms,  properly  so  called,  are  plants  ordi- 
narily of  fleshy  consistence,  the  sporules  of  which  are  placed  on 
the  surface  of  an  external  membrane   and  enclosed  in  distinct 
capsules.     Some  have  a  sort  of  stem  surmounted  by  an    um- 
brella-shaped cap,  the  inferior  surface  of  which  is  lined  by  the 
sporiferous    membrane ;   others   are   club-shaped    or   branched ; 
others  again  form  irregular  masses  of  a  gelatinous  consistence. 
They  are  commonly  found  in  shady,  damp  woods,  at  the  foot  of 
old  trees,  and  a  great  many  are  known.     Several  of  them  may 
be  used  as  food,  and  are  even  very  much  esteemed,  but  others  are 
violently  poisonous,  and  there  are  no  general  characters  by  which 
good  mushrooms  may  be  certainly  distinguished  from  bad  ones ; 
it  is  only  when  we  are  able  to  recognise  perfectly  the  species 
known  to  be  good  that  we  should  venture  to  eat  those  found  in 
forests,  because  there  are  poisonous  mushrooms  which  so  closely 
resemble  the  edible  species  that  mistakes  are  easily  made.     We 
should  invariably  reject  those  which  change  colour  quickly  after 
being  gathered ;  those  which  contain  a  milky  juice,  or  are  of  a 
very  soft  and  watery  structure;  those  that  have  a  peppery,  bitter, 
or  astringent  taste,  and  disagreeable  odour ;  a  bright  red  colour 
is  also  frequently  an  indication  of  poisonous  qualities. 

32.  The  mushrooms  most  used  as  food  are  the  edible  agaric — 
agaricus  edulis,  the  mousserron  agaric,  the  orange,  chant  relle, 
morille,  ceps,  or  boletus   edulis,  or   edible   bole;  but   the   only 
species  cultivated  is  the  edible  agaric,  which  is  propagated   at 
pleasure  by  means  of  the  white  filaments  that  spread  out  in  the 
soil  where   the   sporules    have   germinated,  and    are  known  to 
gardeners  under  the  name  of  white  of  mushrooms. 

33.  One  of  the  most  poisonous  mushrooms  is  the  false  oronge, 
which   resembles  the  true  oronge,   which    is   among  the  most 
esteemed  species,  and  is  very  common  in  the  South  of  France. 

34.  Tinder  or  spunk  is  a  species  of  mushroom  of  the  genus 
Agaric. 


30.  What  are  the  most  important  divisions  of  the  family  of  Fungi  ? 

31.  What  are  agarics  ?     How  are  edible  mushrooms  recognised  ? 

32.  What   species  of  mushrooms  are  used  for  food  ?     What  species  is 
cultivated  ? 

33.  Name  one  of  the  most  poisonous  species  of  mushroom. 

34.  What  is  spunk? 

10 


110 


TRUFFLES. 


35.  The  division  of  the  Lycopodia! cece  comprises  mushrooms, 
the  sporules  of  which  are  not  enclosed  in  especial  capsules.     We 
place  among  them  truffles  (Jig.  129),  singular  plants  of  irregu- 
larly rounded    form,  which   grow  under  ground  without  being 
attached  to  any  other  body  and  without  ever  appearing  above  the 
surface.     The  edible  truffle,  so  much  esteem- 
ed by  gourmands,  is  of  a  brown  colour, 

strong  odour,  and  peculiar  taste ;  its  size 
varies  from  that  of  an  egg  to  that  of  a  fist, 
and  it  grows  five  or  six  inches  under  ground. 
It  is  chiefly  met  with  in  forests  of  ash,  chest-  „.  19r 

.      .  .  -  *          f>  *  J?  *M*  J-/*«J»"™~'J 

nut,  or  oak,  and  in  soils  composed  of  sand 
and  clay.  To  gather  these  subterranean  mushrooms  we  take 
advantage  of  the  instinct  of  hogs,  which  root  them  up  with  their 
snout.  They  have  not  been  multiplied  by  cultivation  as  yet. 

36.  The  mucedinea  or  moulds  are  also  plants  of  the  family 
of  Fungi,  and   we   also   place  in  this  natural  division  certain 
parasitic  plants  that  grow  on  other  living  plants,  often  producing 
in  them  very  remarkable  injurious  alterations.     Of  this  number 
is  a  species  of  fungus  named  aredo,  which  is  sometimes  developed 
on  wheat,  and  occasions  what  farmers  call  blight. 

37.  The   FAMILY  OF  ALGJE  —  Sea- 
weeds— is   composed    of    marine    and 
other  aquatic  plants,  the   structure  of 
which  is  very  simple.     The  fuel  which 
cover  the  rocks  on  our   coast   belong 
to  this  group.     The  genus  Fucus  (fig. 
130)  yields  iodine,  a  useful  medicine. 
The  Chondrus   crispus    or    Carageen 
moss  of  Ireland,  which  also  grows  on 
our  own  coast,  is  converted  into  size ; 
it  also  yields  a  fine  jelly  for  invalids, 
and  is  often  used  in  the  composition  of 
blancmange. 

38.  The    SEMI-VASCULAR    PLANTS 
are   at   first  composed  of  cellular   tis- 
sue alone  like  cellular  plants,  but  often   acquire,  at   a   certain 
period  of  their  development,  vessels  and  stomata  like  phanero'- 
gamous  plants.     They  are  provided  with  roots   like  the  latter, 

35.  What  species  of  mushroom  belong  to  the  division  of  Lycopodia'cea,-  ? 
What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  edible  truffle  ?     Where  are  they 
found  ?     Are  they  cultivated  ? 

36.  What  are  mucedi'nese  ?     What  is  aredo  ? 

37.  What  are  Algae  ?    What  do  we  obtain  from  the  genus  Fucus  ? 

38.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  semi-vascular  plants  ? 


Fig.  130.— FUCUS. 


MOSSES.— FERNS. 


Ill 


and  with  expansions  or  fronds,  ordinarily 
green,  analogous  to  leaves ;  the  latter  often 
arise  from  an  axis  similar  to  a  stem,  and 
sporules  are  developed  upon  their  external  or 
inferior  surface. 

39.  In  this  division  we  place  the  mosses, 
musci,   the   ferns,  felices,   and    some   other 
families  of  less  importance. 

40.  The    MOSSES  —  Musci  —  (Jigs.    131 
and    132)    have    a   very   short,    herbaceous 
stem,  fixed  on  the  ground,  on  stones, 

or  the  bark  of  trees,  by  small  brown 
roots,  and  covered  by  little  leaves 
in  form  of  scales  ;  there  are  no 
vessels  in  their  interior;  finally, 
their  spores  are  enclosed  in  lateral 
or  terminal  buds,  surrounded  by 
a  sort  of  perigon,  and  arise  from 
the  internal  parietes  of  a  sort  of 
urn  (Jig-  132).  "Mosses  rank 
among  the  smallest  of  plants ; 


Fig.  131.— MOSS. 


Fig.  132. 

MOSS. 


they  seldom  exceed  the  height  of  a  few  inches ;  and  many  are 
so  minute  that  they  would  wholly  escape  our  observation  if  they 
did  not  grow  in  patches.  Several  species,  indeed,  are  scarcely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye ;  and  yet  they  have  a  stem,  leaves,  fruit, 
and  other  organs,  as  the  largest  plants  of  the  family." — Gray's 
Elements  of  Botany. 

41.  The  FERNS— Felices— (figs.  133  and  134)  are 
herbaceous  or  arborescent  plants,  the  fronds  or  leaves 
of  which  are  alternate,  often  lobate,  and  grow  upon 
a  sort  of  vertical  stem  or  rhizome  ;  we  find  stomata  on 
the  leaves,  and  trachea?  and  other  vessels  in  their 
petioles.  Their  organs  of  fructification  are  found  on 
the  inferior  surface,  of  the  leaves,  towards  the  edge,  at 
the  extremity  of  the  veins  (fig.  133).  "Although 
the  ferns  of  the  United  States  and  of  all  northern  cli- 
mates have  prostrate  stems,  and  consequently  do  not 


Fig.  133. 

FERN. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  132.— A  magnified  view  of  the  capsule  of  a  moss, 
enclosing  the  sporules.  The  sporule  case,  or  theca,  also  called  capsule, 
is  a  little  oblong  urn-shaped  body,  which  in  a  few  cases  is  sessile,  but 
is  usually  borne  on  a  filiform  fruit  stalk  or  seta  (Jig.  131).  The  tall 
cap-like  part  of  the  figure  above,  somewhat  like  an  extinguisher,  is  called 
a  caly'ptra,  and  when  of  this  form  is  said  to  be  mitriform. 

39.  What  families  belong  to  the  semi- vascular  plants? 

40.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  mosses  ? 

41.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  ferns  ? 


112 


PHANEROGAMOUS   PLANTS. 


Fig.  134. 

FERN. 


rise,  at  most,  above  three  or  four  feet  in  height,  yet  in 
tropical  countries  their  trunks  are  often  erect,  and  fre- 
quently attain  the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet.  The 
tree  ferns  of  the  tropics  are  said  to  be  objects  of  incom- 
parable beauty  ;  their  straight,  unbranched  trunks  often 
rising,  like  those  of  palms,  as  high  as  forty  or  fifty  feet, 
without  a  leaf." — Gray. 

42.  We  also  place  in  this 
division  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom the  chara  (Jig.  135),  an 
aquatic  plant,  which  is  very  re- 
markable on  account  of  the 
singular  circulation  observed 
in  the  interior  of  the  cellules 
of  its  tissue.  Of  the  structure 
of  the  charse  very  little  is  cer- 
tainly known.  They  consist 
of  submersed  water-plants,  hav- 
ing slender  jointed  stems  desti- 
tute of  leaves,  but  furnished 
with  whorled  branches  resembling  the  FiS- 135.— CHARA. 
stem.  There  are  only  a  few  species,  but  these  abound  in  stag- 
nant waters. 

PHANERO'GAMOUS    PLANTS. 

43.  This  great  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  comprises  all 
plants  that  bear  flowers  and  are  multiplied  by  means  of  true  seeds. 
They  are  also  called  cotyle 'donous  plants,  because  the  embryo  or 
germ,  contained  in  the  seed,  is  always  provided  with  one  or  more 
coty'ledons,  organs  which  serve  as  depots  of  food  for  the  nourish- 
ment, of  the  young  plant  during  the  first  part  of  its  existence,  and 
are  not  found  in  the  cryptoga'mia.     Vessels  as  well  as  cellular 
tissue  always  enter  into  the  composition  of  these  plants,  and  for 
this  reason  botanists  sometimes  designate  them  under  the  name 
of  vascular  plants. 

They  are  divided,  as  we  stated  before,  into  two  groups,  the 
monocoty'ledons  and  dicoty'ledons. 

MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS    PLANTS. 

44.  The  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the  organization  of 
plants  of  this  division  are  : 

Explanation  of  Figl  134. — The  leaf  of  a  fern  (magnified)  seen  from  below, 
showing  the  capsules  containing  the  sporules. 


42.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Chara  ? 

43.  What  description  of  vegetables  belong  to  the  division  of  phanero'ga- 
mous  plants? 

44.  What  are  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the  monocotyledons  ? 


MONOCOTYLEDONS.— GRASSES. 


113 


1st.  The  existence  of  a  single  coty'ledon  in  the  seed,  a  circum- 
stance which  corresponds  with  a  particular  mode  of  germination. 
2d.  The  existence  of  an  endogenous  stem,  that  is,  a  stem  in 
which  the  new  fibres  do  not  form  concentric  layers  around  the  old, 
but  are  arranged  in  scattered  bundles. 

3d.  The  arrangement  of  the  nerves  of  the  leaves  is  almost  al- 
ways parallel ;  as  in  Indian  corn. 

4th.  The  existence  of  a  single  floral  envelope,  called  perianth 
or  glume,  which  takes  the  place  of  calyx  and  corolla. 

45.  These  plants  are  also  distinguished  from  the  dicoty'ledons 
by  their  aspect  and  by  some  other  characters.  We  place  in  this 
group  the  Grami'neae,  Palma'ceee,  Asparagi'nea3,  Lilia'cese,  Nar- 
cissa'cese,  Pridese,  Orchi'deas,  and  several  other  natural  families. 

46.  The  FAMILY  OF  GRAMI'NE^E —  Grasses 
—  (figs.  136  and  139)  belongs  to  the  class  of 
monocotyledons  with  stamens  inserted  below  the 
ovary,  named  for  this  reason,  monohypogy'nia 
(from  the  Greek,  monos,  single,  upo,  below,  and 
gune,  woman,  metaphorically,  pistil,  that  is,  hav- 
ing the  stamens  fixed  below  the  ovary).  They  are 
for  the  most  part  herbaceous  plants ;  their  stem, 
which  is  cylindrical  and  ordinarily  hollow,  pre- 
sents at  different  points  knots  from  which  the 
leaves  arise ;  it  is  called  a  culm  or  straw.  The 
flowers  are  generally  united  in  a  spike  or  in 
panicles  (fig.  137);  their  ovary  is  simple,  and 
the  seed,  sometimes  naked,  and  sometimes  fur- 
nished with  an  envelope  named 
glume,  is  composed  of  an  albu- 
men or  farinaceous  perisperm, 
having  a  lateral  pit  near  its 
base  which  lodges  the  embryo. 
It  is  this  perisperm  which  ren- 
ders many  of  these  plants  so 
useful,  by  furnishing  to  man  an 
abundant  and  wholesome  arti- 
cle of  food,  flour,  and  meal, 
&c. 

Fig.  136.  47.  This  family  is  composed 

DARNEL.  of  a  great  many  genera,  among 


Fig.  137 

DARNEL. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  137.  — A  magnified  flower  of  the  darnel,  Lo'lium 
perenne,  sometimes  called  ray-grass,  &c. 

45.  What  natural  families  belong-  to  the  class  of  monocoty'ledons  ? 

46.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  grasses?     What  is  a  sulm ? 

47.  What  genera  belong  to  the  family  of  Grami'nece  ? 

10* 


114  WHEAT. 


which  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize  (Indian  corn),  rice, 
and  sugar-cane,  as  well  as  bamboo  and  reeds.  We  also  place  in 
this  family  different  herbs  which  constitute  the  bottom-grass  of 
all  natural  prairies,  such  as  fescue,  alopecurus  (from  the  Greek, 
alopeXj  a  fox,  and  oura,  tail,  fox-tail),  timothy,  festuca,  meadow- 
grass,  and  darnel  or  tare  (jig.  136). 

48.  Common  wheat  —  Tri'ticum  —  the  most  important  of  all 
the  grasses,  is  an  herbaceous  annual  plant,  with  a  stem  (culm) 
four  or  five  feet  high,  furnished  with  some  leaves,  which  is  ter- 
minated by  a  spike  composed  of  flowers  united  in  groups  of  from 
three  to  six,  called  spikelets,  in  a  common  enve-  a  a 
lope,  which   consists   of  two   scales,  bearing 

the  common   name   of  glume;   each   flower 

bears   three    stamens   enclosed   between   two 

unequal  palese  (from  the  Latin,  palea,  chaff), 

the  external  of  which  often  but  not   always 

terminates  in   a   long  beard    or   barb,  called 

awn  (fig.  138  a).     The  seed  is  oval,  larger 

than  that  of  most  other   grasses,  convex  on 

one   side,   and   on   the   other   hollowed  by  a 

longitudinal   groove ;    on    an   average,   there 

are   forty  seeds   on   each   spike.     It  is  filled 

by   a   white,   farinaceous    substance,    chiefly 

consisting   of  fecula,    and    a    peculiar    sub-      „.    13o_ 

stance  named  gluten.     These  two  substances, 

crushed  by  a  mill-stone,  constitute  the  flour  which  we  use  for 

making  bread.     Fecula  consists  of  minute  grains,  filled  with  a 

matter  of  a  gummy  consistence,  which,  by  the   action  of  heat 

and  various  chemical  agents,  burst  and  permit  their  contents  to 

escape ;  this  is  the  reason  why,  when  we  boil  fecula  in  water,  it 

suddenly  thickens  and  becomes  paste.     Gluten  is  a  very  elastic 

substance,  which  may    be   separated   from   fecula   by  washing 

wheat  flour,  wrapped  in  a  cloth,  under  a  stream  of  water,  for 

some  time. 

49.  Wheat  is  sown  at  two  different  periods;  in  the  autumn 

Explanation  of  Fig.  138. — The  glume  or  husk  ; — a,  a,  the  awns;  —  g,  g, 
the  glume.  This  term  is  most  generally  applied  to  the  outer  and  thicker 
set  of  scaly  leaves  next  to  the  sexual  organs  in  grasses,  two  in  number,  and 
embracing  each  other  at  the  base  (fig.  138),  in  which  are  seen  the  outer 
scales  (glume  or  calyx,  g,  g)  and  the  inner  scales  with  the  awn  (a)  attach- 
ed.  The  stamens  and  pistils  are  removed.  The  small  thin  leaves  to  which 
the  awns  are  attached,  are  called  palea.  When  these  scaly  leaves  embrace 
several  flowers,  they  are  called  bractese  (bracts). 

48.  What  are  the  characters  of  wheat?     What  is  a  glume?     What  ia 
meant  by  the  paleae  ?     What  is  fecula  ?     What  is  gluten  ? 

49.  What  is  the  difference  between  fall  and  spring  wheat  ? 


RYE BARLEY OATS.  115 

and  in  the  spring ;  the  first  is  called  winter  or  "  fall"  wheat,  and 
the  second  spring  wheat;  the  season  of  the  harvest  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  climate. 

50.  There  is  a   species  of  wheat  called   spelt,  the  seeds  of 
which  are  not  separated  from  their  envelope  by  thrashing,  and 
still  another  called  dog  or  couch-grass,  having  a  long  spreading 
root,  which   is  very  injurious  on   account  of  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  overspreads  wheat-fields. 

51.  Common  rye — Secale — very  much  resembles  wheat,  but 
it  never  has  more  than  two  flowers  joined  in  the  same  glume,  and 
forming  a  spikelet.     It  is  said  to  have  come  originally  from  the 
Levant,  but  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States  and  all  parts  of 
Europe ;  it  succeeds  better  than  wheat  in  cold  countries,  and  in 
dry  and  arid  soils.     It  is  sown  earlier  than  the  other  cereals,  and 
generally  flowers  in  the  month  of  May  ;  and  it  is  usually  gathered 
fifteen  or  twenty  days  before  the  wheat  (generally  in  the  month 
of  July).     Rye  flour  is  not  so  white  as  that  of  wheat,  but  is  used 
for  the  same  purposes. 

52.  Barley — Hordeum — is  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
species  by  its  simple,  compact  spike,  formed  of  spikelets  of  a  single 
flower,  arranged  three  and  three ;  its  height  does  not  exceed  two 
or  three  feet.     It  is  the  easiest  of  the  cereals  to  cultivate,  and  the 
most   rapid   in  its  development ;     but  barley  flour  is  even  less 
nourishing  than  rye.    What  is  called  pot  barley  is  made  by  grind- 
ing off  the  husk,  and  pearl  barley  is  made  by  carrying  the  opera- 
tion so  far  as  to  produce  roundness  of  the  grains. 

Malt  is  the  chief  purpose  for  which  barley  is  cultivated  in  Great  Britain 
arid  the  United  States.  In  order  to  understand  the  process  of  malting-,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  cotyledons  of  a  seed,  before  a  young 
plant  is  produced,  are  changed  by  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  earth  into 
sugar  and  mucilage.  Malting  is  only  an  artificial  mode  of  effecting  this 
object,  by  steeping  the  grain  in  water,  and  fermenting  it  in  heaps,  and  then 
arresting  its  progress  towards  becoming  a  plant,  by  kiln-drying  it,  in  order 
to  take  advantage  of  the  sugar  in  the  distillation  of  spirits,  or  fermentation 
for  beer. 

53.  Oats — Arena — has  its  flowers  arranged  in  an  open  panicle, 
composed  of  multiflorous  spikelets   hanging  on  their  peduncles. 
The  seeds  adhere  to  the  glume,  and  are  oblong  and  acute  ;  they 
are  much  used  as  food  for  horses.     Oats  are  sown  in  the  autumn 
or  spring,  and  are  gathered  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  first  of 
September.     The  flour,  called  oat  meal,  is  also  made  into  bread, 
and  forms  what  is  termed  groats  by  grinding  off  the  husk. 

50.  Are  there  other  kinds  of  wheat  ? 

51.  What  are  the  characters  of  rye  ? 

52.  How  is  barley  distinguished  from  wheat  and  rye  ?     What  is  the  dif 
ference  between  pot  and  pearl  barley  ?     What  is  malt  ? 

53.  What  are  the  characters  of  oats  ? 


116 


RICE.— MAIZE.— SUGAR-CANE. 


54.  Rice — Ory'za* — also  has  flowers  arranged  in  a  panicle,  but 
the  spikelets  are  uniflorous ;  it  is  an  annual  plant,  and  delights 
most  in  low  humid  situations,  and  even  in  inundated  places  ;  its 
culm  rises  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  its  leaves  are  very  long. 
It  is  originally  from  India :   it  is  cultivated  in  Italy,  but  Asia, 
Africa  and  America  furnish  most ;  Carolina  rice  is  considered 
amongst  the  very  best;  it  constitutes  the  principal  article  of  diet 
of  all  the  nations  of  the  East. 

55.  Maize,  or  Indian  Com — Zea — (from  the  Greek,  zeb,  I 
live) — is  also  an  herbaceous  annual  grass ;  its  fibrous  roots  give 
rise  to  one  or  more  stems  five  or  six  feet  high,  the  summit  of  which 
bears  a  panicle  nearly  a  foot  long,  formed  of  male  flowers  in  great 
numbers  on  several  spikes ;  the  female  flowers  are  very  nume- 
rous, sessile,  attached  upon  a  common  axis  in  the  axil  of  the  su- 
perior leaves.    The  grains  are  round- 
ed, of  the  size  of  a  common  pea, 
ordinarily  of  a  yellow  colour,  com- 
pressed one  against  the  other,  and  ar- 
ranged longitudinally  in  six  or  eight 
rows.     This  plant  is  originally  from 
America ;   but  was   long  ago  intro- 
duced into  Europe,  and  is  cultivated 
in  all  the  south  of  France,  Spain  and 
Italy,  and  is  used  as  food  both  for 
men  and  many  domestic  animals. 

56.  Sugar-cane — Saccharum^ — 
(Jig.  139)^also  belongs  to  the  fami- 
ly of  Grami'nese;  its  white,  silky 
flowers,  all  of  which  are  hermaphro- 
dite, are  arranged  in  fasciculated 
spikes,  with  two  flowers  at  each  arti- 
culation ;  its  stem,  which  is  from 
eight  to  twelve  feet  high,  is  full  of 
sweet  juice,  which,  being  compressed 
and  evaporated  by  boiling,  yields  su- 
gar. It  grows  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  United  States,  South  America, 
Fig.  139. — SUGAR-CANE.  and  South  Sea  Islands. 

*  ORY'ZA. — From  the  Arabic  word  eruz,  the  Greeks  coined  their  word 
orwza,  and  the  various  modern  nations  of  Europe,  their  rice,  riz,  rets, 
arrdz,  &c. 

t  SACCHARUM. — From  its  Arabic  name  soukar,  from  which  the  Greeks 

54.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  rice  plant  ? 

55.  What  are  the  characters  of  Indian  corn  ? 

56.  What  are  the  characters  of  sugar-cane  ?     How  is  sugar  made  ?    How 
is  sugar-candy  prepared  ?     What  is  rock-candy  ?    What  is  barley  .sugar  ? 
What  is  rum  ? 


SUGAR.— BAMBOO.  117 


[The  cane  in  the  West  Indies  is  propagated  by  cuttings  from  the  root  end, 
planted  in  hills  or  trenches  in  spring  or  autumn,  something  in  the  manner 
of  hops.  The  cuttings  take  root  at  the  joints  under  ground,  and  from  those 
above  send  up  shoots,  which,  in  from  eight  to  fourteen  months,  are  from  six 
to  ten  feet  long,  and  fit  to  cut  down  for  the  mill.  A  plantation  lasts  from 
six  to  ten  years.  Sugar  mills  are  merely  iron  rollers  placed  vertically  or 
horizontally,  between  which  the  canes  are  passed  and  repassed.  The  juice 
thus  squeezed  out  is  collected  and  boiled  with  quicklime,  which  imbibes  the 
superfluous  acid,  which  otherwise  would  impede  crystallization  :  impuri- 
ties are  skimmed  off,  and  the  boiling  is  continued  till  a  thick  syrup  is  pro- 
duced, when  the  whole  is  cooled  and  granulated  in  shallow  vessels  of  earthen 
ware,  which  permit  the  molasses  (a  part  that  will  not  granulate)  to  drain 
off.  It  is  now  the  brown  or  raw  sugar  of  commerce.  A  further  purifica- 
tion is  effected  by  dissolving  it  in  water,  boiling,  skimming,  adding  lime, 
and  clarifying  from  the  oily  or  mucila'ginous  parts,  by  adding  blood  or  eggs, 
which  incorporate  with  them  and  form  a  scum.  When  boiled  to  a  proper 
consistency,  it  is  put  into  unglazed  earthen  vessels  of  a  conical  shape,  with 
a  hole  at  the  apex,  but  placed  in  an  inverted  position,  and  the  base,  after  the 
sugar  is  poured  in,  covered  with  clay.  When  thus  drained  of  its  impurities, 
it  is  taken  out  of  the  mould,  wrapped  in  paper,  and  dried  or  baked  in  a  close 
oven.  It  is  now  the  loaf  sugar  of  the  shops,  and  according  to  the  number 
of  operations  it  undergoes,  is  called  single  or  double  refined.  The  operation 
of  refining  is  seldom  or  never  performed  by  the  growers,  but  forms  a  sepa- 
rate branch  of  business. 

Sugar-candy  is  formed  by  dissolving  loaf  sugar  in  water  over  a  fire,  boil- 
ing  it  to  a  syrup,  and  then  exposing  it  to  crystallize  in  a  cool  place.  When 
crystallized  upon  strings  put  into  the  syrup,  it  is  called  rock-candy.  This 
is  the  only  sugar  esteemed  in  the  East. 

Barley-sugar  is  a  syrup  from  the  refuse  of  sugar-candy,  hardened  in 
cylindrical  moulds. 

Rum  is  distilled  from  the  fermented  juice  of  sugar  and  water.] 

57.  The  Bamboo — Bambu'sa — (from  the  Indian  name  Bam- 
bos) — an  arborescent  plant  of  the  equatorial  regions,  also  belongs 
to  the  family  of  Grami'nea3.     The  bamboo  is  applied  to  a  great 
variety  of  purposes.     In  India  it  is  used  for  building-  houses  and 
bridges,  for  masts,  for  boats,  for  making  boxes,  baskets,  cups, 
mats,  tables,  chairs,   fences,  paper,  and  a  variety  of  other  pur- 
poses ;  and  the  tops  of  the  tender  shoots  are,  in  the  West  Indies, 
pickled.     It  grows  about  forty  feet  high.     The  genus  Bambu'sa, 
belongs  to  the  class  Hexandria,  order  Monogy'nia  of  Linnreus. 

58.  The  FAMILY  OF  PALMS — Palma'cece^fig.  140) — is  com- 
posed of  monocoty'ledons  with  perigy'nous  stamens;  the  stem, 
which  is  cylindrical  and  resembles  a  column,  is  crowned   by  a 
fasciculus  of  large  leaves.     We  have  already  spoken  of  its  struc- 
ture (page  26).     Their  flowers,  which   are  generally  unisexual, 

formed  sackchar,  and  modern  European  nations  sugar.  The  genus  Sac' 
charum  belongs  to  the  class  Tria'ndria,  order  Trigy'nia,  of  the  Linneoan 
arrangement. 

57.  What  is  bamboo  ?     To  what  uses  is  it  applied  ? 

58.  How  is  the  family  of  Palms  characterized'     What  is  sago? 


118 


PALMS. 


form  catkins  or  a  great  bunch 
called  raceme;  the  fruit  is  a 
fleshy  or  fibrous  drupe  contain- 
ing a  very  hard,  bony  nut. 
Nearly  all  these  large  and  beau- 
tiful trees  belong  to  the  inter- 
tropical  regions  ;  many  of  them 
furnish  the  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  in  which  they  grow 
naturally,  wholesome  and  plea- 
sant food  ;  the  date  tree  and 
cocoa-nut  yield  excellent  fruits  ; 
the  cabbage-tree  palm  bears  a 
terminal  bud  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  our  common  cabbage, 
and  several  other  species  yield 
a  fecula  named  sago.  By  in- 
cision into  the  spathe  at  the  top 
of  the  stems  of  some,  a  saccha- 
rine liquor,  termed  siceet  toddy, 
is  procured,  which  when  fer- 
mented constitutes  Palm  wine, 
and  yields  by  distillation  arrack, 
or  rack.  The  date  tree — Fivx- 
nix — (the  Greek  name  of  the 


Fig.  140. DATE  PALM. 


date) — furnishes  a  great  part  of  the  diet  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Arabia  and  part  of  Persia.  They  make  a  conserve  of  it  with 
sugar ;  and  even  grind  the  hard  stones  in  their  handmills  for 
their  camels.  The  leaves  are  manufactured  into  baskets,  bags, 
brushes,  &c.,  and  the  stem  is  used  in  building,  and  another  part 
of  the  plant  is  made  into  rope  and  rigging  for  small  vessels.*  The 
palms  of  Scripture  are  the  leaves  of  the  date  tree. 

The  genus  Ca'lamus  (from  the  Greek  kalamos,  a  reed)  fur- 
nishes the  several  species  of  rattan-canes,  whose  flexible  stems 
when  split  are  woven  into  chair-bottoms. 

59.  The  FAMILY  OF  ASPHODE'LF^E,  or  Asparigi'nese,  belongs 
to  the  class  of  Monoperigy'nia,  and  is  composed  of  herbaceous 
plants  with  fibrous  roots,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a  capsule  with  three 
cells,  or  a  globular  berry.  Common  asparagus,  the  young  shoots 
of  which  are  eaten,  is  the  type  of  this  gro*up. 

*  The  Phoenix,  according  to  the  Linnean  arrangement,  is  in  the  class 
Dicecia,  order  Triandria ;  while  the  Calamus,  another  genus  of  the  Pal- 
macege,  is  in  the  class  Hexa'ndria,  and  order  Monogy'nia. 

What  is  sweet  toddy  ?  What  is  arrack  ?   What  tree  furnishes  dates  ?   What 

are  rattans  ? 

L   59.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Asphode'leae  ? 


LILIES. 


60.  The  FAMILY   OF   LILIA'CE^E  is  also  placed  in  the  class 
of  Monoperigy'nia ;    it   is  composed   of  plants  with   bulbous  or 
fibrous   roots,   and    a   stem    (or   shaft) 

generally  naked ;  the  leaves  are  sessile 
or  sheathing ;  several  species  of  this 
family  are  remarkable  from  having 
flowers  with  a  coloured  calyx,  such 
as  the  lilies,  tulips,  hyacinths,  tuberoses, 
imperials,  &c. 

61.  The   FAMILY   OF   AMARY'LLID^E 
or    NARCI'SSE^:    (Jig.   141),    and    the 
family  of  IRI'DE^E   belong  on  the  con- 
trary to  the  Mono-epigy'nia  :  among  the 
first    is    the   common   Narcissus    (Jig' 
141),  the  Agave  americana,  and  among 
the   second   the   Iris  florentina,  which 
furnishes    orris    root,    and    the   Crocus 
sativus,  which  has  long,  orange-coloured 
stigmas,  which,  when  dried,  form   saf- 
fron.     The   plants    of    the    family   of 
Iri'dea?  are  herbaceous  —  under  shrubs, 
with    fibrous   or   bulbous    roots ;    gene- 
rally their  flowers  are  large,  beautiful, 

and  variegated  in  different  colours.  Fig.  141. — NARCISSUS. 


DICOTYLE'DONOUS  PLANTS. 

• "  .  V 

62.  The  plants  of  this  division  are  chiefly  characterized  : 

1st.  By  the  existence  of  an  embryo  with  two  cotyledons; 
sometimes  however  we  find  three,  or  even  more. 

2d.  By  the  internal  organization  of  the  stem,  all  parts  of 
which  are  arranged  in  concentric  layers,  the  growth  of  which  is 
ex'ogenous. 

3d.  By  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  the  nerves  of  which 
are  ramified. 

4th.  By  the  very  frequent  presence  of  both  a  calyx  and  a 
corolla,  &c. 

63.  They  are  divided  into  four  groups;  the  Apeta'lese,  Mono- 
peta'leae,  Polypeta'lese,  and  Dicli'nese. 

60.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Lilia'ceae  ? 

61.  To  what  family  does  the  common  narcissus  belong?     What  is  orris 
root  ?     What  is  saffron  ? 

62.  What  are  the  chief  characters  of  the  dicotyledons  ? 

63.  How  is  the  division  of  dicotyledons  divided  ? 


120 


BIRTHWORT.— LAURELS. 


Fig.  142. 


APE'TALOUS  DICOTY'LEDONS. 

64.  This  group  of  dicotyle'donous  plants  is  characterized  by 
the  absence  of  a  corolla,  or  at  least  of  a  double  floral  envelope, 
for  the  perianth  as  often  resembles  a  corolla  as  a  calyx.  We 
place  in  it  Aristolo'chiae,  Lauri'nesc,  &c. 

65.     The    FAMILY    OF    ARIS- 

TOLO'CHIA  —  Birthwort  —  (from 

the  Greek,  arisos,  excellent,  and 

lochos,    female,    because    it    was 

supposed     to     be     excellent     for 

females    in    particular  conditions) 

is    composed    of   twining    plants 

with   epigy'nous   stamens  (figure 

142),  with  alternate  and  internal 

leaves,  some  species  of  which  are 

cultivated  in  gardens  —  the  com- 
mon Aristolo'chia,  for  example  (fg-  143). 
The  Aristolo1 chia  serpentaria — Virginia  snake- 
root — belongs  to  this  family. 

66.  The   FAMILY   OF   LAURI'NE^:  (from   the  Latin,  laurus, 
the   laurel  or  bay  tree)  belongs   to   the  class  of  Peristami'nese 
(from  the  Greek,  peri,   around,    and   stamen — fig*  144),  and 

is  composed  of  trees  or  shrubs  with  per- 
sistent leaves  and  fleshy  fruit.  The  type 
of  the  family  is  the  laurels,  one  species  of 
which,  the  laurel  of  Apollo,  is  originally 
from  Greece,  and  was  used  by  the  ancients 
for  decorating  the  crowns  of  their  conquer- 
ors. Cinnamon  is  the  bark  of  another 
species  of  laurel  which  grows  in  India ;  and 
camphor  is  derived  from  another  tree  of  the 
same  genus. 

67.  We  will  also  mention  in  this  class  the  FAMILY  OF  CHENO- 
PO'DE^E  (from  the  Greek,  chen,  a  goose,  and  pous,  foot  —  goose- 
foot),  because  we  find  in  it  one  of  the  plants  which  at  present 
occupies  a  good  deal  of  attention  among  agriculturalists,  espe- 


Fig.  143. 

ARISTOLOCHIA. 


Fig.    144. LAURUS. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  144.  —  Flower  of  a  laurel;  —  a,  the  perigon  ;  —  b, 
stamen  ;  —  c,  pistil. 

64.  How  are  Apeta'leae  characterized  ? 

65.  How  is  the  family  of  Aristolo'chia  (pronounced  aristolokea)  charac- 
terized ? 

66.  From  what  is  cinnamon  obtained  ?     From  what  genus  of  plants  is 
camphor  derived  ? 

67.  To  what  family  does  the  sugar-beet  belong  ? 


SUGAR-BEET.— POTATOE.  121 

cially  in  France ;  namely,  the  sugar-beet.  This  plant,  originally 
from  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  is  annual  or  biennial ;  it  has 
a  spindle-shaped,  fleshy  root,  sometimes  as  thick  as  one's  leg, 
which  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar,  precisely  like 
that  of  the  sugar-cane ;  the  leaves  of  the  sugar-beet  constitute 
an  abundant  and  wholesome  food  for  cattle,  but  it  is  especially 
cultivated  in  France  for  its  sugar. 

MONOPE'TALOUS  DICOTY'LEDONS. 

68.  This   division,  which  is   much  more  numerous  than  the 
preceding,  is  characterized  by  having  a  corolla  distinct  from  the 
calyx,  and   composed  of  a   single    piece.     In   it  we   place   the 
Sola'neti),  Primula'ceae,  Jasmi'nea?,  Labia'tae,  Synanthe'reae,  and 
Rubia'cece,  &c. 

69.  The  FAMILY  OF  SOLA'NE^E  is  composed  of  monope'talous, 
dicotyle'donous  plants  with  hypogy'nous  stamens,  the  flowers  of 
which  have  a  monose'palous,  persistent  calyx,  with  five  lobes,  a 
regular  corolla,  divided  into  from  four  to  five  lobes,  four  or  five 
stamens,  and  a  style  bearing  a  stigma  with  two  lobes,  the  fruit 
of  which  is  a  capsule  or  n  berry  containing  a  great  many  seeds, 
and  the  leaves  are  commonly  alternate.     Most  of  the  Sola'neje 
contain    a    narcotic   (stupifying)    substance,    which    sometimes 
renders   them  very  dangerous;    tobacco,  henbane,    stramonium 
(Jamestown  weed),  are  of  this  kind  ;  we  find  it  even  in  the  leaves 
of  the  common  night-shade,  and  the  Solanum  tubcrosum.     This 
last  plant,  the  stem  of  which  is  herbaceous,  and  the  flowers  white 
or  slightly  violet,  has  at  irregular  intervals  on  its  long,  fibrous 
roots,  large   tubers,  which    are   ordinarily  rounded   or   oblong, 
which  contain  an  immense  quantity  of  fecula,  and  are  known 
under  the  name  of  potatoes. 

The  potatoe  is  originally  from  America  (growing-  at  this  time  wild  in 
Mexico  and  Peru),  and  was  first  introduced  to  Europe  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  about  the  year  1587,  who  carried  it  to  England,  whence  it  was 
soon  spread  upon  the  continent ;  it  is  now  cultivated  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  world.  This  plant  may  be  reproduced,  multiplied  in  two  ways ; 
namely,  by  the  seed,  or  by  the  development  of  the  root-buds  or  eyes,  which 
we  see  on  the  surface  of  the  tubers.  By  sowing  the  seed  we  obtain  a  great 
variety;  but  the  multiplication  by  the  root-buds  produces,  without  any 
alteration  in  the  form  or  colour,  potatoes  like  those  from  which  the  tuber- 
cles were  taken.  This  last  mode  of  culture  is  most  generally  used,  and  to 
succeed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  entire  tubers  in  the  ground ;  we  may 
divide  them  into  several  pieces,  provided  each  fragment  has  one  or  more 
root-buds  upon  it,  for  the  development  of  which  the  feculent  matter  of  the 

68.  How  are  the  Monopeta'lese  characterized  ? 

69.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Sola'neoj  ?     What  plant  pro- 
duces potatoes  ?     Where  were  potatoes  originally  found  ?     How  are  they 
cultivated  ? 

11 


122 


TOBACCO.— BELLADONNA. 


potatoe  furnishes  the  nourishment.  In  those  countries  where  frosts  are 
feared  in  the  spring,  these  vegetables  are  planted  about  the  month  of  April, 
and  gathered  towards  the  end  of  October ;  a  sandy  and  rich  soil  suits  them 
best ;  in  moist  clayey  land  they  become  pasty.  By  the  ordinary  method  of 
cultivation,  the  potatoe  yields  but  seven  or  eight  for  one,  but  by  hoeing  the 
stems,  that  is,  by  heaping  up  the  earth  to  a  certain  height  around  them,  we 
obtain  twelve  or  thirteen  for  one,  and  we  are  assured  that  by  bedding  and 
covering  them  with  earth  the  product  may  be  increased  to  sixty  for  one. 

70.  Tobacco  —  Nicotiana  tabac- 
cum  —  (fg>  145)  is  a  plant  of  the 
£enus  Nicotiana,  which  is  a  native 
of  America ;  it  is  actively  culti- 
vated for  its  large  leaves,  the  uses 
of  which  are  known  by  every  body. 
Introduced  into  the  stomach  it  acts 
as  a  poison,  and  the  smoke  it  yields 
when  burnt  commonly  excites  nau- 
sea and  giddiness  in  persons  not 
accustomed  to  it ;  but  they  may 
become  readily  habituated  to  its 
use,  which,  either  in  the  form  of 
snuff,  cigars,  or  smoking  and  chew- 
ing tobacco,  has  become  almost  uni- 
versal. It  is  now  cultivated  in 
France,  and  in  most  countries  of 
Europe,  and  several  parts  of  India, 
as  well  as  in  various  parts  of 
America.  It  is  sown  about  the 
month  of  March ;  and  about  the 
middle  of  July,  they  begin  to  gather 
the  leaves ;  this  harvest  continues  until  the  period  of  frost,  which 
the  plant  does  not  resist,  and  after  drying  the  leaves  thus  obtained, 
and  having  removed  from  them  the  large  nerves  (stems),  they 
are  sprinkled  with  salt  and  water,  and  for  a  certain  time  permit- 
ted to  ferment;  tobacco  for  smoking  is  then  coarsely  cut  up,  and 
exposed  to  a  moderate  heat  which  curls  it ;  tobacco  for  snuff  is 
cut  into  strips,  which  are  pressed  into  masses,  which  are  after- 
wards reduced  to  powder  by  a  mill. 

71.  Belladonna — Atropa  belladonna — is  another  plant  of  the 
family  of  Sola'nese  which  is  also  very  poisonous ;  it  is  common 
under  walls  and  in  the  woods.  Its  stem  is  branching,  three  or 
four  feet  high,  and  slightly  hairy  ;  its  leaves  are  large,  ovate,  acu- 
minate, and  diffuse  a  disagreeable  odour  ;  its  corolla,  in  form  of  an 
elongated  bell,  has  five  lobes,  is  of  a  dull  red  ;  its  fruit  is  fleshy, 


Fig.  145. — TOBACCO. 


70.  Where  is  tobacco  found  ?     What  are  its  qualities  ? 

71.  What  are  the  properties  of  belladonna? 


OLIVES. 


123 


Fig.  146. 

JASMIN. 


about  the  size  of  a  cherry,  at  first  green,  then 
reddish,  and  lastly  black.  It  then  resembles  a 
black-heart  cherry ;  its  taste  is  insipid,  but  this 
fruit  is  extremely  poisonous.  The  henbane 
(hyosciamus),  bitter-sweet  (dulcamara),  and  se- 
veral other  plants  of  the  same  family  are  also 
active  poisons. 

72.  The  FAMILY  OF  JASMI'NEJE,  also,  belongs 
to  the  class  of  the  Hypocoro'llese,  and  is  com- 
posed of  trees  and  shrubs  with,  commonly,  op- 
posite leaves ;  the  corolla  of  the  flower  has 
four  or  five  lobes,  but  only  two  stamens  (figs. 
146,  147).  We  place  in  it  the  jasmine,  olive, 
ash,  &c. 

73.  The  Olive — Olea  europea 
— (fig.  148) — is  a  tree  originally 
from  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  south  of  Europe, 
now  extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  southern 
departments  of  France ; 
in  the  East  it  grows 
from  forty  to  fifty  feet 
high,  but  in  France  it 
rarely  exceeds  twenty- 
five.  It  is  extremely  long-lived. 
Its  leaves  are  opposite,  lanceolate, 
of  a  bronze  green 
colour  above,  and 
whitish  below.  Its 
flowers  are  small  and 
arranged  in  little 
clusters  (fig.  149); 
its  fruit  is  a  fleshy, 
oval  drupe,  contain- 
Fig.  148.— BRANCH  OF  OLIVE.  ing  a  nut  with  a  single  seed.  A 
symbol  of  peace,  and  consecrated  to  Minerva,  this  tree  was  an 
object  of  a  species  of  worship  among  the  Greeks,  and  its  destruc- 
tion was  prohibited  under  severe  penalty  :  it  is  still  cultivated  with 
care,  but  for  other  reasons — its  fruit  and  its  oil.  (Olive,  or  sweet 
oil,  may  be  said  to  form  the  cream  and  butter  of  Spain  and  Italy. 
Olive  oil  is  made  by  crushing  the  fruit  to  a  paste,  then  pressing  it 
through  a  woollen  bag,  adding  hot  water  as  long  as  any  oil  is  pro- 

72.  To  what  class  does  the  family  of  Jasmi'neoe  belong  ? 

73.  What  are  the  general   characters  of  the  olive  tree  ?     How  is  sweet 
oil  prepared  ?     What  is  the  difference  between  French  and  Spanish  olives  ? 


Fig.  149. 

OLIVE. 


124 


SWEET  OIL.— MANNA. 


duced.  The  oil  is  afterwards  skimmed  off  the  water,  and  put  in 
tubs,  barrels,  and  bottles  for  use.  Pickled  olives  are  prepared  from 
unripe  fruit,  by  repeatedly  steeping  them  in  water,  to  which  quick- 
lime or  any  alkaline  substance  is  sometimes  added  to  shorten  the 
operation.  Afterwards  they  are  soaked  in  pure  water,  and  then 
taken  out  and  bottled  in  salt  and  water,  with  or  without  an  aro- 
matic. Spanish  olives  differ  from  the  French  in  consequence  of 
being  prepared  from  ripe  fruit.) 

74.  The  Ash — Ffaxinus — is  among  the  largest  and  most  beau- 
tiful forest  trees  ;  it  delights  in  a  humid,  light  soil ;  its  wood,  which 
is  white,  longitudinally  veined  and  very  pliant,  is  much  employed 
in  carriage-building,  &c. 

75.  The  Manna-ash,  or  round-leaved  ash — Fraxinus  omus — 
which  grows  in  Calabria,  and  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  permits  a 
sugar-like  substance  to  exude  through  its  bark,  which  hardens  in 
the  airj  and  is  known  under  the  name  of  manna. 


Fig.  150.— SCARLET    SAGE.  Fig.  151.— SAGE. 

76.  FAMILY  OF  LABIA'TJE  (Jigs.  150  and  151)  belongs  to 
the  same  division  as  the  preceding :  these  plants,  which  are 
almost  all  herbaceous,  have  a  square  stem  and  a  tubular  corolla, 
divided  into  two  lips,  one  of  which  is  superior  to  the  other 
(fig.  151);  the  fruit  is  composed  of  four  monospermous  ache- 
niums  enclosed  in  a  persistent  calyx,  and  the  leaves  are  sessile 
and  opposite.  Most  of  the  Labia'tse  are  very  aromatic  ;  they  are 
employed  in  medicine,  and  for  the  preparation  of  scented  waters ; 
such  are  the  mint,  lavender,  rosemary,  sage,  thyme,  balm,  &c. 

74.  What  use  is  made  of  the  ash  ? 

75.  From  what  tree  is  manna  obtained  ? 

76.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  family  of  Labia'tae? 


BINDWEED.— MARIGOLD. 


125 


The  FAMILY  OF  BORRAGI'NE^E  is 
closely  allied  to  the  Labia'tse ;  the  type 
of  this  family  is  the  barrage. 

77.  The    FAMILY    OF    CONVOLVU- 
LA'CE^E,    which    is   also   composed    of 
hypogy'nous,  monopetalous  plants,  has 
the  bindweeds  as  its  type  (figure  152), 
which  are  common  in  our   fields    and 
gardens.     A  species  of  the  bindweeds 
furnishes   jalap,   an    active   purgative 
medicine. 

78.  We  also  place  in  the   class   of 
Hypocoro'lleae  the  FAMILY   OF  PRIMU- 
LA'CE^J,  the  type  of  which  is  the  prim- 
rose, the  gentia'nre,  and  several  others. 

79.  The  FAMILY  OF  SYNANTHE'- 
REJE  (from  the  Greek,  sun,  with,  and 
anthos,  flower)  or  COMPOSITE,  which 
belongs  to  the  division  of  monopetalous 
Epicoro'llece,  is  very  remarkable  for  the 
arrangement  of  its  flowers.  They  are 
generally  small,  and  united  in  a  close 
mass,  called  capi'tulum,  upon  a  com- 
mon receptacle  ;  they  a 
are  of  two  kinds  ;  one 
has  a  regular  corolla  in 
form  of  a  funnel,  and 
called  flosculous  ;  the 
others  have  an  irregu- 
lar corolla,  laterally 
warped  in  form  of  a 
little  tongue.  Finally, 
the  anthers  are  united, 
and  form  a  tube  which 
is  traversed  by  the 
style  (figure  110). 
Sometimes  the  capitulums  (fig.  80)  are  composed  only  of  florets 
like  the  thistle  (fig.  154,  a)  and  artichoke ;  sometimes  in  demi- 
florets,  as  the  dandelion  and  lettuce  ;  and  sometimes  of  florets  in 
the  centre,  and  demi-florets  occupying  the  circumference,  as  the 
sunflower  and  marigold  (Jig.  153).  The  first  are  frequently 
designated  under  the  name  of  flosculous,  the  second  are  called 
semi-flosculous,  and  the  last  radiate. 

77.  From  what  family  of  plants  is  jalap  obtained  ? 

78.  To  what  class  does  the  family  of  Primula' CCEB  belong? 

79.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Synanthe'reae  ? 

11  * 


Fig.  153. MARIGOLD. 


Fig.  154. 

MILK  THISTLE. 


126 


COFFEE. 


80.  Other  monopeta'leae  with  epigy'nous  corollae,  have  the 
anthers  distinct,  and  form  the  class  named  Corisanthe'rece,  which 
is  divided  into  several  families,  among  which  are  the  CAPRI- 
FOLIA'CE^E,  of  which  the  honeysuckle  is  the  type,  and  the 
RUBIA'CE.E,  a  group  in  which  we  find  the  coffee,  Peruvian  bark, 
and  ipecacuanha,  &c. 

81.  The  Coffee  tree  (figure 
155)  appears  to  be  originally 
from  Ethiopia,  whence  it  was 
carried  by  the  Arabians  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Arabia,  but  par- 
ticularly to  the  province  of 
Yemen,  and  especially  to  the 
environs  of  Mocha.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  Dutch  carried  it  to 
Batavia,  and  about  1710,  one 
of  these  precious  plants  was 
sent  from  this  colony  to  Am- 
sterdam ;  it  was  carefully  culti- 
vated in  the  botanical  garden, 
and  soon  produced  fruit,  the 
seeds  of  which  furnished  the 
means  of  its  rapid  multiplica- 
tion, for  one  of  these  young 
trees  thus  obtained,  having  been 
sent  to  Louis  XIV.,  flourished  in 
the  garden  of  plants,  near  Paris, 
and  afforded  the  French  govern- 
ment the  means  of  introducing  its  cultivation  into  Martinique ;  it 
soon  spread  through  the  West  Indies,  and  Brazil,  &c.  The  trunk 
of  the  coffee  tree  is  cylindrical,  and  rises  to  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet  high ;  its  branches  are  somewhat  knotty ;  its  leaves  are 
lanceolate,  shining,  and  of  a  deep  green  ;  its  flowers  are  white 
and  almost  sessile;  and  its  fruit  is  fleshy,  ovoid  berries,  which  are 
at  first  green,  then  red,  and  finally  black  ;  each  berry  encloses 
two  fleshy  nuts,  each  containing  a  seed  convex  outwardly  and 
flat  within,  and  marked  on  the  flat  side  by  a  longitudinal  groove. 
This  shrub  ordinarily  flowers  twice  a  year,  but  there  is  scarcely 
an  interval  between  these  periods,  so  that  it  is  always  loaded 
with  flowers  and  fruit ;  the  latter  generally  ripens  four  months 
after  inflorescence,  and  must  be  gathered  with  care  according  to 
its  state  of  maturity. 


Fig.  155. — COFFEE. 


80.  To  what  class  do  the  families  Capri  folia'  cess  and  Rubia'ceso  belong  ? 

81.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  coffee  tree  ?    Where  does  it  grow  ? 


HEMLOCK. 


127 


82.  The  plant  which  furnishes  us  the  medicine  called  ipeca- 
cuanha, used  as  an  emetic,  bears  considerable   analogy  to  the 
coffee  tree,  and  is  found  in  South  America. 

83.  The  Cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark,  so  valuable  in  the  treat- 
ment of  intermittent  fevers,  is  the  bark  of  certain  trees  which 
also  belong  to  the  family  of  Rubia'cea? ;  they  grow  in  Peru. 


POLYPE'TALOUS  DICOTY'LEDONS. 


84.  This  division  is  distinguished  from  the  two  preceding  by 
having  flowers,  the  corolla  of  which  is  composed  of  several 
separate  petals.  It  is  also  divided  in  accordance  with  the  inser- 
tion of  the  stamens  into  three  sections  called  Epipeta'lece  (epi, 
upon),  Hypopeta' lecB  (hypo,  beneath),  and  Peripeta! lea  (pexi, 
around),  which,  in  their  turn,  are  subdivided  into  families,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  are  the  Umbelli'ferse,  the  Malva'cese, 
the  Gerana'cese,  the  Aurantia'ceaB,  the  Papavera'ceoe,  the  Cary- 
ophy'llere,  the  Ampe'lidse,  the  Cucurbita'cese,  the  Myrta'cese,  the 
Rosa'ceae,  the  Legumino'sa3,  the  Terebintha'cea?,  &c. 


Fig.  156. — HEMLOCK. 


82.  Where  does  ipecacuanha  grow  ? 

83.  To  what  family  does  Peruvian  bark  belong  ? 

84.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  polypetalous  dicoty'ledons  7 
How  are  they  divided  ? 

:      *"  •  ?b?.>-  .--•  :.-.  V=   iriCV^.^."  ivs?  3* 


128 


MALLOWS.— COTTON. 


85.  The  FAMILY  or  UMBELLI'FER,E  is  composed  of  plants  of 
the  class  Epipeta'lese,  the  flowers  of  which  are  very  small,  and 
arranged  in  an  umbel.     One  of  the  most  remarkable  genera  of 
this   group  is   that  of   the  tomlocks  (fig-  156),  the    poisonous 
action  of  which  is  very  powerful.     Several  species  are  known ; 
the  spotted  hemlock — Coni'um  macvla'tum — has  a  cylindrical, 
fistulous  stem,  longitudinally  striated,  branching,  and  marked  at 
its  inferior  part  with  irregular  spots  of  a  dark  purple,  which  are 
also  seen  on  the  leaves ;  these  are  very  large,  three-lobed,  and 
of  a  very  deep  green ;  the  whole  plant  diffuses  a  strong  odour, 
especially  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers.     This  hemlock  is 
biennial,  and  grows  in  stony  places,  near  hedges. 

86.  The    Carrot,  Fennel,  Angelica,  Anis,  Assafatida,  Am- 
moniac, Galbanum,  and  several  other  plants  which  are  not  at 
all  poisonous,  belong  to  this  family. 

87.  The  FAMILY  OF  MAL- 
VA'CE^  the  type  of  which  is  the 
marsh-mallows  (figure  157),  be- 
longs to  the  class  of  Hypopeta'lese; 
its  principal  characters  are  a  mono- 
se'palous  calyx  with  from  three  to 
five  divisions,  and  a  corolla  with 
five  petals  adhering,  at  their  base, 
to  the  filaments  of  the  stamens, 
which  are  united  into  a  tube  (fg. 
110).  The  uniform  character  of 
the  mallow  tribe  is  to  abound  in 
mucilage,  and  to  be  totally  desti- 
tute of  all  unwholesome  qualities. 

88.  The  most  important  plants 
of  this  family  are  the  cotton  trees, 
the  fruit  of  which  furnishes  the 
texible  (weaveable)  material,  known 
under  the  name  of  cotton.  Many 
species  of  this  genus  are  known  : 
one  called  herbaceous  cotton,  varies  much  in  its  appearance ;  some- 
times it  is  an  herbaceous  annual  plant  growing  scarcely  beyond 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  height ;  at  other  times  a  shrub  from 
four  to  six  feet  high,  the  stem  of  which  is  ligneous  and  perennial 
at  its  lower  part.  This  cotton  tree  grows  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and 

85.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  hemlock  ?     To  what  class  and 
family  does  it  belong  ? 

86.  Name  some  of  the  plants  of  this  family. 

87.  How  is  the  family  of  Malva'ceee  characterized  ? 

88.  What  is  cotton  ?     What  part  of  the  plant  furnishes  cotton  ?     How 
is  the  cotton  wool  separated  from  the  seeds  ? 


Fig.  157. MARSH  MALLOW. 


COTTON.— FLAX.  129 


India,  and  is  also  cultivated  in  Sicily.  The  arborescent  cotton 
tree  was  originally  from  India :  it  is  now  cultivated  in  Brazil  and 
Peru,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the 
United  States :  it  grows  to  the  height  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet.  The  leaves  of  these  plants  are  alternate,  petiolate,  and 
divided  into  five  digitate  lobes ;  the  flowers,  borne  upon  peduncles 
in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves,  are  yellowish  or  purplish.  The 
fruit  is  an  egg-shaped  capsule,  divided  into  from  two  to  five  cells, 
each  of  which  contains  several  seeds ;  the  cotton  is  found  sur- 
rounding these  seeds. 

The  Gossy'pium  herba'ceum — herbaceous  cotton — "  grows  from  four  to  six 
feet  high,  and  produces  two  crops  annually ;  the  first  in  eight  months  after 
sowing  the  seed  ;  the  second  within  four  months  after  the  first ;  and  the 
produce  of  each  plant  is  reckoned  at  about  one  pound  weight.  The  branches 
are  pruned  or  trimmed  after  the  first  gathering ;  and  if  the  growth  is  over 
luxuriant,  this  should  be  done  sooner.  When  a  great  part  of  the  pods  are 
expanded,  the  wool  is  picked,  and  afterwards  cleared  from  the  seeds  by  a 
machine  (invented  by  Whitney,  an  American)  called  a  cotton-gin,  com- 
posed of  two  or  three  wooden  rollers  of  about  one  inch  diameter,  ranged 
horizontally,  close  and  parallel  to  each  other ;  and  the  central  roller  being 
moved  by  a  treadle  or  foot-lath,  resembling  that  of  a  knife-grinder,  makes 
the  other  two  revolve  in  contrary  directions.  The  cotton  is  laid  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time  upon  these  rollers,  whilst  they  are  in  motion,  and  readily 
passing  between  them,  drops  into  a  bag  placed  underneath  to  receive  it, 
leaving  the  seeds,  which  are  too  large  to  pass  with  it,  behind.  The  cotton 
thus  separated  from  the  seeds,  is  afterwards  hand-picked  and  cleansed 
thoroughly  from  any  little  particles  of  the  pods  or  other  substances  which 
may  be  adhering  to  it.  It  is  then  stowed  in  large  bags,  where  it  is  well 
trodden  down,  that  it  maybe  close  and  compact ;  and  the  better  to  answer  this 
purpose,  some  water  is  every  now  and  then  sprinkled  upon  the  outside  of 
the  bag ;  the  marketable  weight  of  which  is  usually  three  hundred  pounds.** 
— London. 

89.  The  Flax — Linum  usitati' ssimum — which  is  employed  in 
a  like  manner,  belongs  to  another  family  of  the  same  class,  called 
the  family  of  GERANIA'CE^J,  the  type  of  which  is  the  Geraniums 
of  our  gardens  and  green-houses.  This  well-known  thread  or 
clothing  plant  has  been  cultivated  from  the  remotest  antiquity  for 
its  cortical  fibres,  which,  when  separated  from  the  woody  matter, 
form  the  lint  and  tow,  which  is  spun  into  yarn,  and  woven  into 
linen  cloth.  Flax-seed  yields  a  valuable  oil,  by  expression,  called 
linseed  oil,  used  in  painting ;  in  powder  it  is  much  used  for  poul- 
tices ;  and  the  refuse,  after  pressing  for  oil,  forms  a  cake  fit  to 
fatten  cattle,  and  for  manure.  The  stem  of  the  flax  is  simple 
and  cylindrical,  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  branching  only 
towards  the  top ;  the  leaves  are  sparse  and  lanceolate,  and  the 
terminal  flowers  are  of  a  delicate  blue ;  the  calyx  has  five  sepals, 

89.  To  what  family  does  the  flax  plant  belong  ?  What  is  linen  ?  What 
is  linseed  oil  ? 


130  ORANGE — LEMON.— SHADDOCK. 

and  the  corolla,  which  is  campanulate,  is  composed  of  the  same 
number  of  petals,  and  encloses  five  stamens,  and  as  many 
stigmas. 

90.  The  FAMILY  OF  AURANTIA'CE^  or  HESPERI'DEJE,  which 
includes  the  orange  and  lemon,  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  the 
two  preceding,  and  is  composed  of  trees  or  shrubs,  bearing  articu- 
late leaves,  furnished  with  small  vesicular  glands,  filled  with  a 
transparent  volatile  oil ;  their  flowers  are  composed  of  a  mono- 
se'palous  persistent  calyx,  with  from  three  to  five  divisions,  and 
a  corolla  with  from  three  to  five  petals;  the  style  is  simple  ;  and 
the  fruit  is  fleshy,  internally  separated  by  very  thin  membranous 
partitions,  and  covered  by  a  thick  pericarp,  which,  like  the  leaves, 
is  furnished  with  vesicles  filled  with  a  volatile  oil. 

91.  The  common  orange — Citrus  auran'tium —  is   a  tree 
which   may  grow  to  thirty  or  forty  feet  in   height,  but  in  our 
climate  seldom  attains  to  twenty  feet.     It  does  not  resist  the  cold 
of  our  winters,  and  during  this  season  it  must  be  protected  by  a 
proper  temperature.     Orange  trees  do  not  often  yield  fruit  after 
they  are  twenty  years  old  ;  but  they  may  live  for  centuries  ;  there 
are  orange  trees  still  existing  at  Cordova,  that  date  back  to  the 
time  of  the  Moorish  kings ;  one  of  these   trees   is   said   to   be 
between  six  and  seven  hundred  years  old.     At  Versailles,  there 
is  a  biiter  orange  tree,  that,  it  is  said,  was  sown  in  the  year  1421, 
in  the  garden  of  the  Queen  of  Navarre,  at  Pampeluna ;  it  after- 
wards belonged  to  the  Constable  of  Bourbon,  and  after  his  death, 
this  tree,  then  the  only  one  in  France,  was   transported    from 
Chantilly  to  the  chateau  of  Fontainebleau,  whence  Louis  XIV. 
carried  it  to  the  orangery  of  Versailles  in  1684. 

92.  The  uses  of  the  orange,  the  lemon  (Ci'trus  me'dica),  the 
citron  (a  variety  of  the  Ci'trus  me'dica),  the  lime  (Ci'trus  acida), 
and  the  shaddock  (Ci'trus  decumana],  are  well  known.     They 
all  contain  an  agreeable  acid,  which  renders  them  favourites  as 
dessert  fruits,  or  for   making   acidulous   drinks,  for   preserves, 
confections,  &c.     The  rind  is  generally  bitter,  and  abounds  in 
volatile  oil.     There   are  two   principal  varieties ;   the   sweet  or 
China  orange,  and  the  bitter  or  Seville  orange.     An  agreeable 
distilled  water  is  prepared  from  the  flowers  of  the  orange.     The 
oil  of  bergamot  is  obtained  from  the  rind  of  the  fruit  of  a  species 
of  Citrus. 


90.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Aurantia'cece  ? 

91.  To  what  family  does  the  orange  tree  belong  ?     Are  orange  trees  very 
short-lived  ? 

92.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  orange  ? 


TEA.— VINE. 


131 


93.  Most  botanists  place  in  this 
family  the  tea-plant   (fig.  158)  — 
Camellia  —  (from     Camellus     or 
Kamel,  the  name  of  a  Jesuit  bota- 
nist).    This  remarkable  genus  fur- 
nishes the  domestic  tea  in  universal 
use,  and  flowering  trees  and  shrubs 
which     are     universally    admired. 
There  are  two  species,  the  Camel- 
lia bohe'a,  and  the  Camel' Ha  viri- 
dis,  which  furnish  tea.     This  article 
is   prepared  with    great    care,  and 
considerable    labour.     The    leaves 
are  carefully  picked   one  by  one ; 
dried  in  shallow,  iron  pans,  over  a 
slow  fire ;  exposed  to  the  air,  fre- 
quently turned,  and  finally  passed 
through  a  winnowing  machine,  such 
as  is  commonly  used  by  our  farmers 
for   wheat,   &c.     In    this  way  the 
kinds   of   tea    are    separated,    the 
lightest  falling  farthest  from    "  the 
fan ;"  the  first  and  the  heaviest  is 
the    "  imperial,"    next    the   young 
hyson,  then  gunpowder,  and  so  on. 

Both  green  and  black  tea  are  said  to  be  from  the  same  plant ; 
but  the  green  tea  is  longest  over  the  fire.  —  Rusckenberger's 
Voyage  round  the  World. 

94.  The  VINI'FEK^E,    or   VITES,     or    AMPELLI'DE^E,    form 
another  nat-ural  family  closely  resembling  the  preceding,  which 
belongs  to  the  same  class ;  it  is  composed  of  bushes  or  sarment- 
ous  (trailing  or  climbing)    shrubs,  which    support 
themselves  by  tendrils  growing  in  the  place  of  the 

peduncles ;  with  simple  or  digitate,  alter- 
nate leaves,  having  two  stipules  at  the 
base,    and    small    greenish   flowers    ar- 
ranged in  racemes  opposite  to  the  leaves  ; 
calyx  very  short,  and  the  corolla  com- 
posed of  five  petals,  and  five   stamens 
opposite  to   the   petals ;    the    fruit   is   a 
Pi*   159      globular  berry  containing  from  one  to 
VINE.    '     four  seeds.     Annexed  are  representations  VINE. 

93.  To  what  family  does  the  tea-plant  belong  ?     What  is  the  genus  of  the 
tea-plant  ?     Where  does  it  grow  ? 

94.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  Viniferae?     How  many  species 
of  vine  are  cultivated  in  France  ?    What  are  raisins  ?    What  are  currants  ? 


Fig.  158. TEA-PLANT. 


132 


WINE.— OPIUM. 


of  the  flowers  of  the  vine.  Figure  159  is  the  unexpanded  flower 
magnified.  The  Common  vine — Vitis  vinifera — was  originally 
from  Arabia,  but  is  now  widely  spread  through  the  tropics  and 
temperate  zones  of  both  hemispheres.  The  varieties  are  very 
numerous,  and  there  are  no  less  than  fourteen  hundred  said  to  be 
cultivated  in  France  alone.  The  fruit  of  the  vine  (the  grape, 
when  newly  gathered,  and  the  raisin,  when  dried)  is  extensively 
used  as  an  article  of  dessert,  and  its  juice  furnishes  wine  by  fer- 
mentation. Verjuice,  a  harsh  acid  juice,  is  obtained  from  the 
unripe  grape.  Currants  or  Corinthian  raisins  are  obtained 
from  a  remarkably  small  variety  of  black  grape,  called  the 
Black  Corinth. 

95.  Wine  is  the  product  of  the  fermentation  of  the  juice  of 
the  grape ;  its  colour,  as  we  know,  varies  from  red  to  a  very 
pale  yellow  :  red  wines  are  made  from  black  grapes  from  which 
the  pericarp  or  envelope  of  the  fruit  is  not  separated  from  the 
juice ;  white  wines  are  from  white  grapes  or  from  black  grapes, 
the  skins  of  which  are  not  permitted  to  remain  in  the  juice  while 
fermenting.  During  fermentation  there  is  a  great  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  disengaged,  and  when  the  wine  is  put  into  bottles 

before  this  process  is  terminated, 
this  gas  remains  imprisoned  in 
the  liquid,  and,  escaping  the  mo- 
ment the  cork  is  withdrawn, 
renders  the  wine  sparkling  and 
frothy :  Champagne  is  of  this 
kind. 

96.  The  FAMILY  OF  PAPA- 
VERA'CE^E  (Jig.  161)  also  be- 
longs to  the  class  of  Hypope- 
ta'Iese  ;  the  type  of  this  family  is 
the  poppies,  plants  from  which 
opium  is  obtained.  The  flower 
of  the  poppy  has  a  calyx  with 
two  concave  and  very  cadu'cous 
sepals  ;  a  corolla  with  four  large 
petals,  which,  before  their  ex- 
pansion, are  plaited  or  wrinkled  ; 
a  great  many  stamens,  a  one- 
celled  ovary,  which  becomes  an 
oval  capsule  enclosing  a  great 
number  of  seeds.  The  red  poppy 
Fig,  1 61.— RED  POPPY.  —  Papaver  rlweas  —  (fig.  161) 

95.  What  is  wine  ?     What  Benders  some  wine  sparkling  ? 

96.  To  what  class  does  the  family  of  Papavera'cea-  belong  ?     What  is 
o'pium  ?     What  is  lau'danum  ? 


CRUCIFEILE.— LEGUMINOS^J. 


133 


so  common  in  our  gardens,  belongs  to  this  genus  ;  but  the  most 
celebrated  species  is  the  white  poppy  —  Papaver  somni'ferum  — 
because  the  juice  that  is  extracted  from  the  capsules  constitutes 
opium,  a  peculiar  substance  which  has  the  property  of  calming 
pain  and  inducing  sleep,  when  taken  in  small  quantity,  but  in  a 
large  dose,  is  a  violent  poison.  Dissolved  in  proof-spirits  it  con- 
stitutes lau'danum. 

97.  The  FAMILY  OF  RANUNCU- 
LA'CE.E   or   Crowfoot   tribe    (fig* 
162)  also  belongs  to  the  class  of 
Hypopeta'leae.     It  consists  of  herbs 
or  very  rarely  shrubs.     The  petals 
are   from    three   to   fifteen,  hypo- 
gy'nous,    in    one   or    more    rows. 
The  leaves  are  alternate  or  oppo- 
site, generally  much  divided,  with 
the  petiole  dilated  and  forming  a 
sheath    half   clasping    the    stem. 
The  Anemone,  Buttercup,  Monk's- 
hood,  and  Traveller's-joy,  are  of 
this    tribe.      The    plants   of  this 
family  are   in    general  acrid   and 
caustic,  and  some  are  even  poison- 
ous. 

98.  The  FAMILY  OF  CRUCI'FEKJE 
is   also   composed   of  plants  with 
hypogy'nous   stamens ;  almost  all 
of  them  are  herbaceous  ;  the  leaves 

are  alternate,  and  the  flower  has  four  ungui'culate  petals  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  six  tetrady'namous  stamens  (four  long 
and  two  short),  and  the  fruit  is  a  silique.  In  it  we  place  mustard 
— Sina2)is — Cabbages  —  Bras' sica  —  Radish — Raphanus  sati- 
vus,  &c. 

99.  The  FAMILY  OF  RESEDA'CE^E,  the  type  of  which  is  the 
Reseda  or  Mignonette,  that  of  the  VIOLA'CK^E,  which  includes 
Violets,  &c.,  that  of  the  CARYOPHI'LLE^E,  which    includes   the 
caper-bush  (Capparis  spinosa),  &c.,  and  several  other  families 
belong  to  the  class  of  Hypopeta'lese. 

100.  The  FAMILY  OF  LEGUMINO'S.E,  of  the  class  of  Peripe- 
ta'leae,  is,  next  to  the  grasses,  one  of  the  most  useful,  on  account 


Fig.  162.  —  RANUNCULUS. 


97.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Ranuncula'cese  ? 

98.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Cruciferse  ? 

99.  Name  some  other  families  of  the  class  of  Hypopeta'leae. 
100.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Legumino's*  ? 

12 


134 


MIMOSA. 


of  the  abundant  and  various  aliment  it  furnishes  for  man  and  the 
domestic  animals.  Some  of  these  plants  are  herbaceous,  and 
others  are  even  very  tall  trees ;  their  flowers  are  generally  com- 
posed  of  a  monose'palous  calyx,  ordinarily  campanu'liform  or 
tubular,  and  a  corolla  with  five  unequal  petals,  the  general  form 
of  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  a  butterfly ;  the 
stamens  are  almost  always  ten  in  number,  and  joined  together  in 
two  unequal  fasciculi ;  the  fruit  is  a  cod  or  legume,  generally 
elongated,  compressed,  bivalve,  and  has  a  single  cell  enclosing 
seeds  which  are  ordinarily  globular  or  lenticular.  The  leaves 
are  almost  always  alternate,  and  the  stem  varies  much. 

101.  This  very  natural   family  has   been  divided  into  three 
sections,  the  Papiliona'cese,  Cassia,  and  Mimosse. 

102.  The  Papiliona 'cecz  are  characterized  by  the  papiliona'- 
ceous  corolla  (Jig.  94),  and  have,  in  general,  ten  diadelphous 
stamens,  as  broom  (Spartium  scoparium),  pea  (Pisum  sativum), 
laburnum  (Cy'tisus  laburnum]. 

103.  The  Cassice  have  an  equal  and  regular  corolla  of  three 
or  five  petals,  and  ten  stamens,  of  which  some  are  frequently 
abortive,  as  the  Senna  shrub  (Cassia  senna),  the  Tamarind  tree 
(  Tamarindus  indica). 

104.  The  Mimo'scB  have  a  double  calyx,  the  external  small 
and  of  five  teeth,  the  internal  monosepalous  and  tubular  (some- 
times  called    corolla),    and 
numerous  stamens,  general- 
ly monodelphous,  as  the  sen- 
sitive plant — (fig.  163)  — 
(Mimosa pudica] — the  Gum 
Arabic  tree  (a'cacia  vera), 
&c.    The  most  common  fea- 
ture of  the  family  of  Legu- 
minosse,  is  (Mr.  Lindley  ob- 
serves) "  to  have  what  are 
called  papiliona'ceous  flow- 
ers ;  and  when  these  exist, 
no  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  recognising  the  order,  for 
papiliona'ceous  flowers  exist 
nowhere  else.     Another  and 
more  invariable  character  is 


Fig.  163. SENSITIVE  PLANT. 


101.  How  is  the  family  of  Legumino'sffi  divided  ? 

102.  How  are  the  Papiliona' ceee  characterized  ?  (from  the  Latin,  papilio^ 
a  butterfly,  because  the  flower  bears  some  resemblance  to  a  butterfly.) 

103.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cas'siae  ? 

104.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Mimosas  ? 


ROSACES—APPLE.— PEAR—PLUM.  135 

to  have  leguminous  fruit;  and  by  one  of  these  two  characters  all 
the  plants  of  the  family  are  known." 

105.  Many  plants  of  this  family  yield  seeds,  the  coty'ledons 
of  which  are  thick  and  fleshy,  and  formed  chiefly  of  fecula,  that 
serve  us  for  food  ;  others  furnish  gum,  the  different  a'cacice  for 
example  ;  some  are  used  as  purgative  medicines,  such  as  the  senna 
and  tamarind  ;  and  others  yield  colouring  matters,  which  are  very 
useful  in  the  arts,  such  as  indigo,  campeachy  wood,  &c. 

106.  Most  of  our  fruit  trees  belong  to  the  FAMILY  OF  ROSA'CE^E, 
the  type  of  which  is  the  rose  tree.     This  family  takes  its  place 
near    the    Legumino'sa?,    in   the   division   of  peripetalous   dico- 
ty'ledons.     The  flower  of  these  plants  is  composed  of  a  mono- 
sepalous  calyx,  with  four  or  five  divisions,  and  a  corolla  almost 
always  composed  of  from  four  to  five  petals  regularly  displayed  ; 
the  stamens  are  generally  numerous;  the  leaves  are  alternate, 
and  the  form  of  the  fruit  varies  a  great  deal.     We  place  in  this 
family,  which  also  includes  many  ornamental  plants,  the  apple, 
oear,    plum,   cherry,   peach,   apricot,   quince,    medlar,    almond, 
strawberry,  raspberry,  dewberry,  &c. 

107.  The  apple  tree — Pyrus  rnalus — grows  to  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet  in  height,  and  bears  oval,  dentate  leaves,  smooth  on 
both  sides,  and  white  flowers  tinted  with  rose  colour  externally. 
It  is  indigenous  to  the  forests  of  Europe,  and  in  the  wild  state, 
flowers  about  the  beginning  of  May,  but  earlier  when  cultivated. 
The  structure  of  its  fruit  has  already  been  mentioned  (fig.  116). 
More  than  a  hundred  varieties  are  known  ;  this  tree  only  flourishes 
in  temperate  climates,  and  succeeds  best  in  a  deep  and  slightly 
humid  soil ;  it  may  live  two  hundred  years.     The   apple  is   a 
wholesome  and  agreeable  fruit ;  the  most  important  product  from 
it  is  rider,  a  more  or  less  spirituous  liquor,  obtained  by  ferment- 
ing the  juice  of  the  fruit,  which  is  obtained  by  pressing  it. 

108.  The  pear  tree — Pyrus  communis  —  a  tree  similar  to  the 
preceding,  is  also  indigenous  to  the  forests  of  Europe ;  it  succeeds 
best  in  a  rich  soil,  but  also  accommodates  itself  to  dry  and  sandy 
situations.     Pears  are  very  much  esteemed,  and  vary  very  much 
in  taste  as  well  as  in  form;  their  juice  by  fermentation  yields  a 
liquor  very  similar  to  cider,  called  perry. 

109.  The  plum,  apricot,  peach,  and  cherry,  differ  from  the 
preceding  in  the  structure  of  their  fruit,  which  is  a  fleshy,  round 

105.  In  what  manner  are  the  Mimosae  valuable  to  us  ? 

106.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Rosa'ceae?     What  plants 
are  included  in  this  family  ? 

107.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  apple  tree  ?     What  is  cider  ? 

108.  What  is  perry? 

109.  What  are  prunes  ? 


136  CHERRY APRICOT.— PEACH.— ALMOND. 

drupe,  slightly  furrowed  on  one  side,  containing  a  nut  enclosing 
one  or  two  oleaginous  seeds.  The  domestic  plum  —  Prunus 
domestica  —  is  a  hardy  tree  of  middle  size,  which  accommodates 
itself  to  all  kinds  of  soil ;  when  left  to  itself  it  grows  straight 
and  pyramidal,  but  from  trimming  forms  a  rounded  top ;  the 
leaves  are  oval,  smooth  above  and  slightly  pubescent  below;  its 
flowers  are  white;  and  its  fruit,  the  colour  and  form  of  which 
varies,  has  a  smooth  skin,  without  down,  and  more  or  less 
covered  by  a  very  fine  powder,  called  flour.  Nearly  all  the 
species  of  plums  may  be  dried  in  the  sun  or  in  an  oven  and  con- 
verted into  prunes. 

110.  The    common    clierry —  Prunus    cera'sus —  is    analo- 
gous to  the  plum;  it  appears  to  be  originally  from  Asia,   and 
Pliny  informs  us  that  in  the  year  of  Rome  880,  Lucullus,  after 
his  victory  over  Mithridates,  introduced  it  into  Italy.     This  tree 
delights  in  temperate  climates,  and  yields  abundance  of  excellent 
fruit. 

111.  The  apricot — Prunus  armeni'aca — appears  to  be  origin- 
ally from  Armenia;  every  one  knows  the  fruit  of  this  tree,  and 
the  form  of  its  stone  or  nut.     The  peach  —  Amy'gdalus  persica 
(of  which  the  nectarin  is  a  variety) — and  the  almond — Amy 'g. 
dalis  communis  and  Amy'gdalus  ama'ra  —  belong  to  the  same 
genus,  but  differ  from  the  apricot  in  the  nut,  the  surface,  of  which, 
instead  of  being   smooth,    is   irregularly  and   deeply  furrowed. 
The  peach  is  originally  from  Persia,  and  does  not  prosper  except 
in  localities  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  ;  when 
carefully  trimmed  it  may  live  forty  years.     The  almond  is  a  tree 
of  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  high  ;  its  trunk  is  rugged,  and  cover- 
ed with  an  ash-coloured  bark ;  the  leaves  are  straight,  pointed 
and  dentate;  the  flower  is  white,  and  expands  before  the  leaves 
are  developed ;  the  fruit  is  ovoid,  elongated,  a  little  fleshy,  and 
of  a   green   colour ;   and   the   bony  case  which   envelopes   the 
almond  kernel  is  sometimes  thin  and  pliable,  and  at  others,  thick 
and  very  hard.     There  are  two  principal  varieties;  one  called 
the  bitter,  and  the  other  the  sweet  almond  ;  both  contain  a  good 
deal  of  oil,  and  yield,  when  rubbed  up  in  water,  an  emulsion 
called    almond  milk,  which  forms  the  basis  of  orgeat.      Bitter 
almonds  also  contain,  in  very  small  quantity,  a  very  volatile  sub- 
stance, called  hydrocy'anic  or  prussic  acid,  which  is  a  most  vio- 
lent poison. 

112.  The   strawberry  —  Fraga'ria  vesca  —  is  an  herbaceous 

1 1 0.  Where  is  the  cherry  tree  from,  originally  ? 

111.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  almond  tree  ?     What  is  orgeat  ? 

112.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  strawberry  1 


STRAWBERRY.— RASPBERRY.—MELONS.  137 

plant  with  a  very  short  stem  ;  almost  all  the  leaves  are  radical, 
and  ordinarily  consist  of  three  leaflets  borne  on  a  long  petiole ; 
the  collum  of  the  root  gives  rise  to  slender,  long,  repent  shoots, 
which  take  root,  from  point  to  point,  put  forth  leaves,  and  thus 
form  new  stems ;  from  the  midst  of  these  leaves  rise  two  or  three 
simple,  slender  sterns,  which  bear  on  their  summit  from  four  to 
six  white  flowers.  The  red,  fleshy  body  which  succeeds  the 
flower,  and  known  under  the  name  of  strawberry,  is  commonly 
taken  for  the  fruit  of  this  plant,  but  is  nothing  but  a  prolongation 
of  the  common  support  of  the  seeds,  which  becomes  succulent 
and  very  much  developed  ;  the  true  fruit,  that  is,  the  seeds  and 
their  envelope,  adhere  to  its  surface.  This  plant  grows  through- 
out Europe,  and  in  most  places  in  North  and  South  America. 

113.  Raspberries  —  Rubus  idceus —  which   have  nearly  the 
same  structure  as  the  strawberry,  are  furnished  by  a  shrub  of 
the  genus  of  bramble,  which  belongs  to  the  family  of  Rosa'ceax 
Botanists  call  the  raspberry  the  bramble  of  Mount  Ida,  because 
it  grows  wild  on  that  mountain,  but  it  is  also  originally  from  the 
northern  regions  of  Europe  and  America ;  it  delights  in  a  light 
and  somewhat  shaded  soil.     Its  root  is  a  ligneous  stock  which 
produces  several  straight  stems  armed  with  numerous  fine  thorns; 
its  flowers  are  white,  quite  small,  and  borne  on  slender  peduncles. 
Its  fruit  is  composed  of  many  small  monospermous  berries  slightly 
attached  to  each  other,  and  placed  round  a  conical,  fleshy  sup- 
port.    The  dewberry — Rubus  ccesius  —  yields  a  fruit  of  similar 
character,  but  it  is  without  the  taste  and  perfume  of  the  rasp- 
berry. 

114.  The  FAMILY  OF  CUCURBITA'CE^E  belongs  to  the   same 
class  as  the   preceding,  and  is  composed  of  large  herbaceous 
plants,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a  pepo.     The  pulpy  matter  found  in 
the  fruit  of  most  of  the  plants  of  this  family  is  wholesome  and 
often  very  nutritious.     The  melon  or  cantaloupe,  so  much  prized 
as  a  dessert  fruit,  is  obtained  from  the  Cu'cumis  melo  ;  the  com- 
mon cucumber  is  the  fruit  of  the  Cu'cumis   sativus.     Besides 
these,  we  have  the  water-melon  —  Cu'cumis  citrullus  —  and  the 
squash-gourd,  &c.     The  FAMILY  OF  MYRTIA'CE^E  or  MYRT.E, 
and  several  others  also  take  their  place  in  the  division  of  polype- 
talous  dicotyledons. 


113.  What  are  raspberries  ? 

114.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cucurbita'ces  ? 


138  FOP.— HEMP. 


115.  To  the  same  division  of  Peripeta'lese 
belong  the  Indian  figs,  or  Ca'ctece,  or  Nopa'- 
lecs  (Jig.  164) ;  they  are  known  by  the  stamens 
being  indefinite,  the  calyx  and  corolla  being  im- 
perceptible, or  very  minute,  and  their  succulent 
character.  The  fruits  of  many  of  the  Ca'ctece 
are  pulpy  and  refreshing.  The  milky  juice  of 
some  of  the  plants  in  this  family  is  very  dan- 
gerous, as  that  of  the  Cactus  grandiflorus, 
Cactus  flagelliformis,  &c.  The  insect  called 
Cochineal  (Cocus  cacti)  is  found  on  some 
species  of  cactus. 

DICLINOUS*  DICOTY'LEDONS. 

116.  This  fourth  division  of  the  dicoty'ledons  is  composed,  in 
the  method  of  Jussieu,  of  plants,  the  flowers  of  which  are  truly 
unisexual  and  diclinous,  that  is,  the  two  sexes  are  not  found  in 
the  same  individual ;  but  it  is  not  very  natural  and  is  not  adopted 
by  the  majority  of  the  botanists  of  the  present  day. 

In  this  division  we  place  the  Euphorbia'ceaa,  the  Cupuli'fera, 
or  Amenta'cese,  the  Urti'cese,  the  Coni'ferae,  &c. 

117.  The  FAMILY  OF  URTI'CE,E  is  composed  of  plants,  both 
herbaceous  and  ligneous,  the  juices  of  which  are  often  milky,  the 
flowers  are  apetalous,  joined  in  a  catkin  or  enclosed  in  a  fleshy 
involucre,  and  have  hypogy'nous  stamens ;  the  fruit  is  composed 
of  a  crustaceous  achenium  enveloped  by  the  calyx  or  involucre. 
We  place  in  this  family  the  hop  (Humulus  lupulus),  which  is 
valued  in  brewing  for  the  bitter  quality  of  its  strobili  or  cones ; 
the  banyan  tree  (Ficus  religiosa) ;  the  fig  (Ficus  carica) ;  nettle 
(Urtica   dioica)  ;  the  well  known  plant  which    furnishes  hemp 
(Cannabis  saliva) ;  mulberry  (Morus  nigra).     The  bark  of  the 
Morus  papyrifera   furnishes   the   paper  of  the  Chinese.     The 
bread-fruit  tree  (Artocarjms  incisa) ;  the  elm,  &c. 

118.  The  hemp — Cannabis  sativa  —  belongs  to  the  family  of 
Urti'cese;  it  is  an  herbaceous,  dioeceous  plant,  the  male  flowers 
of  which  are  arranged  in  axillary  and  terminal  panicles,  and  the 
female  flowers  are  sessile  in  the  axils  of  the  superior  ramuscules  ; 
these  flowers  have  a  single  envelope  which  takes  the  place  of 

*  DICLINOUS  :  (from  the  Greek,  dis,  two,  and  kline,  bed.)  This  term  is 
applied  to  plants  in  which  the  sexual  organs  exist  separately  in  different 
flowers,  that  is,  not  having  both  sexes  in  the  same  flower,  being  unisexual. 

115.  How  is  the  family  of  Nopa'leae  known  ?     What  is  cochineal? 

1 1 6.  What  kind  of  plants  are  included  in  the  class  of  Dicli'neoe  ? 

117.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Urti'ceffl  ? 

1 18.  What  is  hemp  ?    For  what  is  it  used  ? 


ELM.— BREAD-FRUIT.— OAK.  139 

calyx  and  corolla;  it  is  entire,  oblong  or  conical,  and  in  the 
female  flowers  laterally  cleft,  while  in  the  male,  it  presents  five 
oblong  and  slightly  concave  parts.  We  know  but  one  species  of 
this  genus  ;  its  straight,  quadrangular  stem  rises  from  five  to  six 
feet  high  ;  the  leaves  are  digitate,  acuminate,  and  dentate  ;  at  the 
base  of  the  stem,  opposite,  and  alternate  above.  In  this  plant,  as 
well  as  almost  all  of  the  dicecia,  the  males  are  not  so  tall  as  the 
females,  and,  through  a  singular  error,  they  are  always  regarded 
by  the  ignorant,  as  the  female,  and  vice  versa.  Hemp  is  origin- 
ally  from  Persia,  and  has  been  as  long  in  use  as  flax  ;  it  is  culti- 
vated in  great  quantity  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  even 
grows  there  spontaneously.  It  is  sown  in  the  month  of  June  in 
very  rich  soil ;  the  female  plants,  which  ripen  later  than  the 
male,  are  chiefly  cultivated  for  the  seed,  from  which  an  oil  is 
obtained,  for  burning  in  France,  for  eating  in  Russia,  and  paint- 
ing in  England.  Within  a  few  years  hemp  has  been  cultivated 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  manufactured  into  ropes  for  rigging 
ships,  &c. 

119.  The  elm  is  also  a  plant  of  the  family  of  Urti'cese.     Its 
flowers,  which  are  hermaphrodite,  are  very  small  and  united  in 
clusters  at  the  upper  part  of  the  ramifications  of  the  stem  ;  they 
expand  before  the  leaves,  which  are  simple  and  alternate.  This  tree 
is  indigenous  in  France,  and  acquires  a  great  size  ;  it  is. frequently 
employed  in  forming  shady  avenues,  and  its  wood  is  useful. 

120.  The  bread-fruit  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  bears  a  pulpy 
fruit,  which,  when  gathered  before  being  ripe,  is  roasted ;  it  tastes 
like  bread  made  of  wheat  flour  and  potatoes.     The  inhabitants 
of  Tahiti  and  the  adjacent  islands  feed  upon  it  nearly  throughout 
the  year. 

121.  The  FAMILY  OF  CUPULI'FER,E  or  AMENTA'CEJE,  contains 
several  of  our  most  important  forest  trees,  such  as  the  oak,  beech, 
and    chestnut.     It   is   composed  of  trees  with   simple,  alternate 
leaves;  the  male  flowers  are  arranged  in  cylindrical  and  scaly 
catkins,    and    the   female   flowers    are   generally  axillary  and 
entirely,  or  in  part,  covered  by  a  scaly  cupule  ;  the  fruit  is  always 
a  gland,  which  is  commonly  unilocular,  and  always  accompanied 
by  a  cupule.     There  are  several  species  of  oak  known  ;  the  com- 
mart  or  red  oak  is  a  magnificent  tree  which  grows  to  a  height  of 
sixty  or  seventy  feet;  the  leaves  are  laterally  incised  into  obtuse 
lobes,  and  almost  always  regularly  opposite;  the  male  flowers 

119.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  elm  ? 

120.  Where  is  bread  fruit  found  ?     How  is  it  eaten  ? 

121.  What  are  the  characters  of  the   family  of  Cupuli'fenB  ?  (from  the 
Latin,  cupulum,  a  little  cup,  and  fero,  I  bear.)      What  description  of  plants 
does  this  family  contain  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  oak  ?     What  is 
tan? 


140  TAN.— NUT-GALLS.— CORK. 

form  long,  slender  catkins  at  the  upper  part  of  the  young 
branches ;  and  the  female  flowers  are  sessile,  and  grouped  in  the 
axils  of  the  upper  leaves.  This  tree  grows  slowly,  but  lives  for 
a  long  time ;  it  rarely  begins  to  bear  glands  (acorns)  at  an  early 
age,  but  does  not  cease  to  grow  till  the  end  of  three  or  four  cen- 
turies. Its  wood  is  very  valuable  on  account  of  its  hardness  and 
durability,  and  is  used  for  frame-work  in  building.  Its  bark, 
which  is  very  astringent,  is  also  very  useful,  because  it  serves  to 
make  tan,  a  substance  by  means  of  which  skins  are  tanned,  and 
form  leather. 

122.  Nut-galls,  which  are  employed  for  making  ink,  and  for 
dyeing  black,  are  excrescences  produced  by  the  sting  or  puncture 
of  a  little  insect  on  the  branches  of  a  species  of  oak  in  Asia 
Minor. 

123.  The  holm-oak  or  evergreen-oak  which    abounds  in  the 
South  of  Europe,  has  dentate  leaves,  which  remain  throughout 
the  winter.     The  same  is  true  of  another  species  of  this  genus, 
known  as  the  cork  tree,  because  it  furnishes  cork.     This  sub- 
stance, which  is  spongy  and  elastic,  is  the  herbaceous  layer  of 
the  bark,  which  is  removed  from  the  tree  every  eight  or  ten 
years ;  there  are  a  great  many  of  these  trees  in  Spain,  and  also 
in  the  South  of  France.     The  outer  bark  is  the  cork,  but  there 
is  an  interior  bark  which  is  left  on  to  protect  the  tree,  so  that 
stripping  off  the  outer  bark  is  so  far  from  injuring  the  trees,  that 
it  is  necessary  to  their  continuation.     Trees  that  are  never  bark- 
ed are  said  to  die  at  the  end  of  fifty  or  sixty  years.     The  bark 
is  removed  for  the  first  time  when  the  tree  is  about  fifteen  years 
old.     It  is  taken  off  in  sheets,  and  after  being  detached,  it  is  flat- 
tened by  presenting  the  convex  side  to  heat,  or  by  pressure.     In 
either  case  it  is  charred  (slightly  burned)  on  both  surfaces  to 
close  the  transverse  pores  previously  to  being  sold.     The  car- 
bonized surface  produced  by  this  charring  may  be  seen  in  bungs 
(for  casks),  but  not  in  corks,  which  being  cut  in  the  lengthway 
of  the  bark,  the  charring  is  taken  off  in  the  rounding. 

124.  The  live-oak  —  Quercus  virens —  grows  to  the  height  of 
forty  or  fifty  feet,  spreading  its  branches,  when  in  open  places, 
extremely  wide ;  it  yields  the  finest  and  most  durable  ship-timber 
of  any  species  known  ;  for  which  reason  it  is  considered  one  of 
the  most  valuable  trees  in  the  United  States.     It  is  chiefly  found 
in  Florida,  and  the  Southern  States. 


122.  What  are  nut-gails  ?     What  are  they  used  for  ? 

123.  What  tree  furnishes  cork  ?     What  is  the  reason  that  we  see  sheets 
of  cork  slightly  charred  ? 

124.  Where  does  live-oak  grow  ? 


CHESTNUT.— ELM.— PINES.  141 

125.  The  chestnuts  —  Casta'nea  —  form  another  genus  of  the 
same  family  as  the  preceding;  the  fruit  is  a  species  of  nut  with 
a  single  cell,  which  encloses  two  or  three  seeds  containing  a  good 
deal  of  fecula,  and  is  entirely  enveloped  by  the  cupule,  the  sur- 
face of  which  is  studded  with  sharp  points.     The  common  chest- 
nut is  a  large  beautiful  tree  which  grows  spontaneously  in  the 
forests,  nearly  throughout  Europe  and  different  parts  of  North 
America;  it  sometimes  acquires  an  enormous  size;  there  is  one 
on  Mount  Etna  said  to  be  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  it  is  hollow,  and  a   little  house  has   been   built  in  its 
interior,  with  a  hearth  where  they  cook  chestnuts  which  are  often 
gathered  from  the  tree  itself.     In  Cevennes,  Limousin,  and  some 
other  parts  of  France,  the  peasants  live  almost  exclusively  on 
chestnuts.     The  wood  is  used  in  building ;  it  is  extremely  durable, 
and  in  high  esteem  for  posts  and  rails  to  construct  fences.     The 
chinquapin  nut — Casta'nea  pu'mila — is  a  small  tree,  or  rather  a 
shrub,  growing  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet  in  the  Southern  States, 
but  scarcely  exceeding  seven  or  eight  in  cold  latitudes.     The  fruit 
is  very  sweet  and  agreeable  to  eat. 

126.  The  yoke-elm  also  belongs  to  the  family  of  Cupuli'ferae  ; 
the  male  and    female  flowers  are  arranged  in  catkins,  composed 
of  imbricated  scales.     It  is  a  tree  easily  shaped  by  trimming,  and 
for  this  reason  is  often  employed  in  Europe  for  hedges ;  it  some- 
times rises  to  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  height,  and  its  wood,  which  is 
very  hard,  is  much  used  by  wheelwrights,  and  for  fuel. 

127.  A  great  many  European  forests  are  formed  of  trees  of 
the  FAMILY  OF  CONI'FER^E,  which  is  placed  in  the  class  of  Di« 
cli'neoc,  alongside  of  the  Cupuli'ferra  ;  they  are  generally  designated 
under  the  title  of  evergreens  and  resinous  trees,  because  they  pre- 
serve their  leaves  through  the  winter,  and  because  their  wood 
contains    a    great    quantity  of  resin   (commonly    called    rosin). 
Almost   all  of  them  have  stiff,  linear,  coriaceous  leaves ;  their 
flowers  are  unisexual,  and  arranged  in  cones  or  catkins  which  are 
ordinarily  scaly;  and  generally  the  fruit  also  is  a  scaly  qone. 
Fir  trees  and  pines  are  types  of  this  family ;  these  two  genera 
are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  aspect,  by  their  leaves, 
which   are   solitary  on   the  fir  tree,  and   united   in    fasciculi  or 
bunches  of  from  two  to  five  on  the  pines ;  by  the  male  flowers, 
the  catkins  of  which  are  isolated  and  solitary  on  the  pines,  and 
united  and  grouped  on  the  fir  tree,  and  by  several  other  charac- 
teristics.    Both   delight   in   mountainous   regions,  and  on  sandy 

1 25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  chestnut  tree  ?     What  plant  furnishes 
chinquapins  ? 

126.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  yoke-elm? 

127.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Coni'ferse  ?  (from  the  Latin, 
com/8,  a  cone,  and  /cro,  I  bear.)     Where  do  pines  most  abound  ? 


142  USES  OF  PLANTS. 


plains.  Pines  abound  especially  in  the  north,  where  they  form 
forests  of  vast  extent ;  the  stem  is  straight,  and  their  height,  fre- 
quently colossal ;  a  great  many  species  are  known. 

128.  The  Jersey  pine,  pitch,  or  scrub  pine,  is  of  middle  size, 
straggling  growth,  and  full  of  resin.  Its  branches  are  tougher 
than  those  of  any  other  pine,  and  might  be  used  for  many  pur- 
poses if  its  wood  were  not  subject  to  so  early  a  decay.  The 
pitch  pine  is  generally  known  in  its  native  country  by  the  name 
of  Norway  pine ;  sometimes,  particularly  among  the  Canadian 
French,  red  pine.  It  grows  in  close  forests,  is  very  tall,  and  its 
bark  remarkably  smooth  and  red  ;  the  limber  is  very  heavy ;  for 
which  reason  it  is  rejected  for  masts,  though  its  shape  and  size 
appear  to  recommend  it  for  that  purpose.  The  yellow  pine  is 
most  in  use  for  building  houses  as  well  as  shipping.  The  loblolly 
or  old  field  pine  is  found  in  large  tracts  in  the  Southern  States  ; 
all  the  woods  seem  to  be  filled  with  its  seeds ;  for  when  any  piece 
of  clear  land  is  neglected  for  any  space  of  time,  it  will  be  covered 
by  these  pines.  It  is  difficult,  and  in  some  cases  almost  imprac- 
ticable, to  recover  lands  so  run  over,  as  the  ground  appears  to 
have  lost  all  fertile  properties  for  other  vegetation.  The  long- 
leaved,  yellow,  pitch,  or  brown  pine,  is  a  beautiful,  as  well  as  a 
very  useful  tree.  The  white  or  Weymouth  pine  grows  in  the 
State  of  Vermont,  to  an  enormous  size ;  it  is  the  best  timber  in 
America  for  masts. 

Turpentine,  resin,  tar,  and  pitch,  are  the  products  of  several 
species  of  pines,  and  are  exported  in  large  quantities  from  the 
United  States. 

The  common  fir  is  found  in  the  same  countries  as  the  wild 
pine.  Larch  and  cedar  are  very  analogous  to  the  fir  tree. 

OF  THE  USES  OF  PLANTS. 

From  the  short  sketch  we  have  just  given  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  we  see  how  many  important  and  varied  services  are 
rendered  to  us  by  plants.  Either  directly  or  indirectly,  all  ani- 
mals are  nourished  by  plants;  indeed,  there  is  an  immense  num- 
ber of  animated  beings  that  eat  nothing  but  vegetable  substances, 
and  those  that  feed  upon  meat  would  not  find  sufficient  food,  unless 
they  devoured  each  other,  without  destroying  those  that  are  main- 
tained on  vegetable  food  exclusively.  There  is  scarcely  a  plant 
that  does  not  nourish  some  animal  ;  almost  all  insects,  for  exam- 
ple, live  either  in  the  perfect  or  in  the  larva  state,  at  the  expense 
of  the  plant  upon  which  they  are  habitually  found ;  and  even  in 
the  highest  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  number  of 

128.  What  species  of  pine  are  most  prevalent  in  the  United  States  ? 
What  is  tar  procured  from  ?  What  plants  yield  turpentine  ? 


USES  OF  PLANTS.  143 


phyti'vorous*  species  is  immense,  for  the  quadruma'na,f  the 
gnawers,  the  pa'chyderms,:}:  and  the  ruminants,  all  observe  a 
vegetable  diet ;  and  man  himself  derives  most  of  his  food  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Among  the  most  important  alimentary  plants,  the  first  are  the 
cereals.  Under  this  name  we  designate  plants  of  the  family  of 
grasses,  which  afford  nourishment  to  man  and  most  domestic  ani- 
mals ;  namely,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize,  and  rice.  There 
is  in  the  interior  of  their  seed,  betwixt  the  spermoderm  and  the 
embryo,  a  considerable  deposit  of  amylaceous§  matter,  designed 
to  nourish  the  young  plant,  and  designated  by  botanists  under 
the  name  of  albumen  or  perisperm  ;  it  is  this  matter  we  use  for 
food.  We  have  already  studied  the  history  of  these  plants,  con- 
sequently it  is  useless  to  repeat  it.  We  will,  however,  add  here, 
that  the  perisperm  of  the  cereals,  and  consequently  the  flour 
obtained  by  grinding  them,  is  essentially  composed  of  fecula  or 
starch,  ordinarily  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity,  of  a  substance 
named  gluten,  which  considerably  resembles  animal  matter. 
Wheat  flour  contains  more  gluten  than  any  other,  and  for  this 
reason,  it  makes  better  bread  and  is  more  nutritious ;  rye  also 
contains  it,  but  there  is  none  in  rice,  oats,  &c. 

Other  plants  also  furnish  abundance  of  fecula,  but  not  from  the 
same  part  as  in  those  mentioned ;  sometimes  it  is  in  the  coty'le- 
dons  of  the  seed,  sometimes  in  tubercles,  and  at  other  times  in 
the  very  substance  of  the  stems  or  roots ;  thus,  peas  and  beans 
and  some  other  plants  of  the  family  of  Legumino'sae,  furnish 
edible  seeds,  the  coty'ledons  of  which  contain  the  same  as  the 
albumen  of  the  cereals,  a  great  deal  of  fecula,  and  a  certain 
quantity  of  gluten  mixed  with  sugar  and  some  other  matters. 
Whatever  part  this  fecula  may  occupy,  it  in  general  constitutes, 
as  in  the  pericarp  of  the  cereals,  depositories  of  nutritive  matter 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  plant,  or  of  new  shoots. 

The  tubers  of  the  potatoe  owe  their  nutritious  qualities  to  the 
quantity  of  fecula  they  contain ;  the  same  is  true  of  batatas\\ 
(the  Spanish  or  sweet  potatoe),  a  species  of  convolvulus,  originally 


*  Phyti'vorous.  —  From  the  Greek,  phuton,  plant,  and  »oro,  I  eat;  plant, 
eating. 

t  Quadruma'na. — From  the  Latin,  quadrinvs,  formed  from  quatuor,  four, 
and  manus,  hand  ;  having  four  hands. 

t  Pa'chyderm. — From  the  Greek,  pachus,  thick,  and  derma,  skin. 

§  Amyla'ceous. — From  the  Latin,  amy'lum,  starch  ;  starchy. 

||  Batatas  is  either  a  Malay  or  Mexican  word.  The  plant  is  a  native  of 
both  the  E.ast  and  West  Indies,  and  China.  It  was  first  carried  to  Spain 
from  the  West  Indies,  and  annually  imported  into  England,  and  sold  as  a 
delicacy.  It  is  the  potatoe  of  Shakspeare  and  his  cotemporaries,  the  com- 
rnon  or  Irish  potatoe  being  then  scarcely  known  in  Europe. 


144  USES  OF  PLANTS. 


from  India,  which  is  now  cultivated  in  all  warm  regions  in  the 
world.  The  species  of  fecula,  known  under  the  name  of  cassava 
or  tapioca,  of  which  great  use  is  made  in  the  West  Indies,  is 
derived  from  the  root  of  the  manioc,  a  plant  of  the  family  of 
Euphorbia'cese,  which  also  contains  a  very  poisonous  juice  that 
is  separated  by  means  of  water.  Sago  is  another  species  of 
fecula  obtained  from  the  stem  of  a  palm,  and  salep  is  also  a  fecula 
obtained  from  the  stem  of  a  monocotyle'donous  plant  of  the  family 
of  Orchi'dese. 

The  most  esteemed  of  our  fruits,  the  majority  of  them  at  least, 
are  furnished  by  the  family  of  Rosa'cese :  for  example,  apples, 
pears,  plums,  cherries,  peaches,  apricots,  strawberries,  raspber- 
ries ;  and  to  complete  the  list  of  fruit  trees  we  must  not  omit  the 
mention  of  some  species  of  the  family  of  Ampeli'dese,  and  the 
family  of  Aurantia'cese ;  namely,  the  vine,  the  orange,  and 
citron. 

Plants  furnish  us  not  only  with  wholesome  and  agreeable  food, 
but  also  substances  which  are  of  the  greatest  utility  in  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing,  and  in  the  construction  of  our  dwellings. 
Hemp,  flax,  and  cotton,  yield  us  long,  flexible  filaments,  which 
constitute  excellent  materials  for  spinning  and  weaving  ;  and  our 
forest  trees,  almost  all  of  which  belong  to  the  family  of  Cupuli'- 
ferse,  or  that  of  the  Coni'ferse,  furnish  abundance  of  wood  for 
building  our  houses  and  ships,  as  well  as  for  the  manufacture  of 
furniture,  and  instruments  of  various  kinds. 

Ornamental  plants  which  decorate  our  gardens  and  con- 
servatories are  very  numerous ;  they  are  furnished  by  very 
various  families,  in  the  front  rank  of  which  we  may  place  the 
rosa'cese,  because  it  has  for  its  type  one  of  our  most  beautiful 
flowers,  the  rose.  Many  species  and  varieties  of  rose  trees  are 
known,  and  almost  all  of  them  may  be  cultivated  in  the  open  air, 
in  our  climate;  they  flourish  best  in  a  light  soil  and  partial  expo- 
sure to  the  sun.  In  the  wild  state,  they  have  but  five  petals,  in 
the  midst  of  which  we  observe  a  great  number  of  stamens ;  but 
cultivation  has  transformed  most  of  these  latter  organs  into  petals, 
and  enhanced  the  beauty  of  the  flowers. 

The  dahlia,  which  was  for  some  years  so  rare,  but  now  every- 
where met  in  gardens,  belongs  to  the  family  of  Synanthe'rese; 
this  beautiful  herbaceous  plant  has  a  perennial  root  composed  of 
bundles  of  horizontal,  oblong  tubercles,  from  which  rises  a  cylin- 
drical, branching  stem,  bearing  opposite  leaves  and  large  flowers, 
which  appear  from  the  end  of  July  till  the  approach  of  frost. 
The  dahlia  may  be  multiplied  by  its  seeds,  or  by  the  division  of 
its  roots. 

The  genus  aster,  which  comprises  a  great  number  of  beautiful 
autumnal  flowers,  including  the  Queen  Margaret,  which  was  im- 


USES  OF  PLANTS.  145 


ported  from  China  into  Europe,  about  a  hundred  years  ago,  also 
belongs  to  the  family  of  Synanthe'rea3. 

The  family  of  Caryophi'llese  presents  our  gardens  with  dif- 
ferent species  of  carnations  or  pinks,  known  under  the  name  of 
common  pink,  china  pink,  &c.  The  family  of  Legumino'sae 
gives  us  aca'cia,  the  sweet  pea,  &c. 

We  have  seen  that  a  great  many  plants  afford  to  man  whole- 
some and  abundant  food ;  that  others  are  violent  poisons  to  him, 
but  very  many  even  of  the  latter  are  useful,  because  when  pru- 
dently administered  they  constitute  powerful  medicines. 

A  great  number  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Sola'nese  are  of 
this  kind;  for  example,  belladonna,  henbane,  stramonium,  to- 
bacco ;  some  species  of  the  family  of  Papavera'ceaB,  such  as  the 
poppies ;  and  hemlock,  which  belongs  to  the  Umbelli'ferce,  &c.  &c. 
In  our  citation  of  poisonous  plants,  we  must  not  omit  the  mush- 
rooms, the  history  of  which  we  have  already  given. 


13 


GLOSSARY. 


BOTANY. 


ABO'RT. — To  bring  forth  before  the 
time;  to  fail  in  complete  produc- 
tion. A  seed  that  fails  to  germi- 
nate may  be  said  to  abo'rt. 

ABO'RTION. — The  act  of  bringing  forth 
untimely. 

ABO'RTIVE. — That  which  fails  to  pro- 
duce or  bring  forth  anything;  fall- 
ing off  without  producing  any 
fruit. 

ABSO'RPTION. — The  act  of  swallowing 
up  (pages  17  and  27). 

ACA'CIA. — From  the  Greek  akantha,  a 
thorn  Systematic  name  of  a  ge- 
nus of  plants. 

ACA'ULOUS. — From  the  Greek,  o,  with- 
out,  and  kaulos,  stem.  Without  a 
stem. 

A'ccESsoRY. — Joined  to  another  thing 
so  as  to  increase  it ;  additional. 

ACERO'SE. — From  the  Latin,  acer,  a 
needle.  In  form  of  a  needle. 

ACHE'NIUM.— From  the  Greek,  a,  with- 
out, and  cAaino,  I  gape.  A  form 
of  fruit. 

A'ciD. — Sour,  sharp.  In  chemistry 
this  term  is  applied  to  all  sub- 
stances which  saturate  and  neu- 
tralize alkalies  and  other  salifiable 
bases. 

ACOTY'LEDON. —  From  the  Greek,  a, 
without,  and  kotuledon,  a  seed-lobe. 
A  class  of  plants. 

A'COTYLE'DONOUS. — Belonging  or  re- 
lating to  acoty'ledons. 

ACU'MINATE. — From  the  Latin,  acu- 
men, a  point.  Pointed. 

ACU'TE. — More  gradually  sharp  point- 
ed than  acuminate.  In  botanical 
language  every  angle  is  acute. 

ADVENTI'TIOUS. — Accidental.  Adven- 
titious roots  are  those  which  grow 
from  the  stem  (page.  19).  Adven- 
titious buds  are  those  which  grow 
on  parts  of  the  stem  where  they  are 
not  commonly  met. 

IS. — Latin.     Equal ;  even. 


. — From  the  Latin,  asti- 
vus,  of  or  belonging  to  summer. 
A  figurative  expression  employed 
to  indicate  the  manner  in  which 
the  parts  of  a  flower  are  arranged 
before  they  unfold.  Botanists  speak 
of  the  aestivation  of  the  calyx,  of 
the  corolla,  of  the  stamens. 

A'GAMOUS. — From  the  Greek,  o,  with- 
out,  and  gamos,  marriage.  A  class 
of  plants. 

AGA'RICUS. — Latin.     Agaric. 

AGGLU'TINATED. — From  the  Latin,  ad, 
together,  and  gluten,  glue.  Joined 
to,  or  united  together. 

AGGREGATED.  —  Collected  together  ; 
accumulated.  When  a  fruit  is  com- 
posed of  several  agglutinated  car- 
pels, it  is  said  to  be  aggregate. 

AKE'NE. — See  Achenium. 

ALBU'MEN. — From  the  Latin,  albus, 
white.  An  immediate  principle  of 
animals  and  vegetables ;  it  con- 
stitutes  the  chief  part  of  the  white 
of  eggs. 

ALBUR'NUM, — Sap-wood. 

AL'G^E. — Latin,  plural  of  alga,  sea. 
weed.  Systematic  name  of  a  family 
of  plants. 

ALIME'NTARY. —  Affording  nourish- 
ment. 

ALOPECU'RUS. — From  the  Greek,  alo- 
pex,  fox,  and  oura,  tail.  Name  of 
a  kind  of  grass. 

ALTE'RNATE. — Being  by  turns  ;  one 
after  another. 

AMA'RA. — Latin.    Bitter. 

AMARYL'LID^:. — Also,Amaryllida'ceaB. 
Systematic  name  of  an  order  of 
plants,  formed  from  Amaryllis,  the 
name  of  one  genus  of  the  order. 

AME'NTUM. — Latin.     A  cat-kin. 

AME'NTA. — Latin.  Plural  of  Amentum. 

AMENTA'CE^J. — Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  plants,  in  which  the  flow- 
ers are  arranged  in  amenta  or  cat. 
kins. 

(H8) 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


147 


L    j        American. 


AMERICA'NA. 
AMERICA  NUS. 
AMPEI/IDE^E.  —  From  the  Greek,  Am- 

pelos,  a  vine.     A  systematic  name 

of  a  family  of  vines. 
AMPLE'XJCAULE.  —  From  the  Latin,  am- 

plecto,  I  embrace,  and  cavils,  stem. 

Stem  -  embracing.      Applied   to   a 

fbrrn  of  leaf. 
AMPU'LLA.  —  Latin.     A  bottle.     Any- 

thing  blown   or   puffed    up.     The 

name  of  a  form  of  leaf. 
AMYG'DAUJP.  —  Latin.  From  the  Greek 

amugdalon,  an  almond.      Generic 

name  of  the  almond  tree. 
AMYLA'CEOUS.  —  From  the  Latin,  amy'- 

lum,  starch.     Starchy  ;  of  the  na- 

ture of  starch. 
ANA'LOGOUS.  —  Similar  ;  bearing  a  re- 

semblance to. 
ANDRO'PHORE.  —  From  the  Greek,  an- 

dros,  the  genitive  of  alter,  man  — 

anther,  and  phoreo,  I  bear.  Anther- 

bearer.     A  kind  of  sheath  to  the 

pistil. 

ANDRO'PHORUM.  —  Latin.   Androphore. 
ANGIOSPE'RMIA.  —  From  the  Greek,  ag- 

geion,  a  vessel,  and   sperma,  seed. 

Name    of   a  Linnsean    order    of 

plants. 
ANGU'LINERVE.  —  From  the  Latin,  an- 

gulus,  a  corner,  an  angle,  and  ner- 

vus,    a   nerve   or   sinew.     Having 

straight  nerves  which  form  angles 

with  each  other. 
A'NNUAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  annus,  a 

year.    Yearly.    A  plant  which  rises 

from  the  seed,  reaches  perfection 

and  perishes  within  a  year. 
A'NNULAR.  —  From  the  Latin,  annulus, 

a  ring.     In  form  of  a  ring. 
ANO'MALOUS.  —  From  the  Greek,  and- 

malos,  unequal,  irregular. 
A'NTHER.  —  From  the  Greek,  anthera, 

a  flowery  herb. 
A'NTHRACITE.     From  the  Greek,  an- 

thrax,  charcoal.    Mineral  charcoal. 

A  kind  of  stone  coal,  which  is  hard 

and  difficult  to  inflame. 
APETA'LE^E.  —  From  the  Greek,  fl,  with- 

out, and  petalon,  petal.    Systematic 

name  of  a  group  of  plants. 
APE'TALOUS.  —  Applied  to  flowers  that 

have  a  calyx  and   no  corolla,  or 

neither. 
A'PEX.  —  The  top,  summit,  or  end. 


When  applied  to  a  leaf,  it  is  tho 
point  most  remote  from  the  base. 

APOCA'RPOUS. — From  the  Gieek,  apo, 
from,  and  karpos,  fruit.  Applied 
to  fruits  formed  of  a  single  carpel. 

APOTHE'CUM. — From  the  Greek,  apo- 
theke,  a  repository. 

APPARA'TUS. — An  assemblage  of  or- 
gans. 

ARBORE'SCENT. — From  the  Latin,  ar- 
bor, a  tree.  Stems  of  plants  which 
are  at  first  herbaceous  and  after- 
wards become  somewhat  woody 
and  tree-like. 

A'RIL. — A  coat  or  covering  of  certain 
seeds,  formed  by  the  expansion  of 
the  funicula  or  placenta. 

ARI'LLUS. — Latin.    Aril. 

ARI'STATE. — Awned. 

ARISTOLOCHI'A. — From  the  Greek,  arri- 
ses, excellent,  and  lochos,  female, 
because  it  was  supposed  to  be  ex- 
cellent for  females  in  particular 
conditions.  Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

ARMENI'ACA. — Latin.     Armenian. 

AROMA'TIC. — From  the  Greek,  aroma, 
an  odour.  Spicy  ;  fragrant. 

ARTI'CULATE.  —  Jointed.  Articulate 
leaves  are  those  attached  to  the 
stem  by  a  sort  of  joint. 

ARTICULA'TION. — A  joint. 

ARTOCA'RPUS. — From  the  Greek,  artos, 
bread,  and  karpos,  fruit.  Generic 
name  of  the  bread-fruit  tree. 

ASCI'DHJM. — From  the  Greek,  askos,  a 
bottle  or  pitcher.  A  kind  of  leaf. 

ASPARAGI'NE^E. — From  the  Greek,  spar- 
rosso,  I  tear,  or  asparagos,  a  term 
applied  to  the  tender  shoots  of 
plants.  Systematic  name  of  a  fa- 
mily of  plants. 

ASPHODE'LEJE. — From  the  Greek,  as- 
phodelos,  name  of  a  flower.  Sys- 
tematic name  of  a  family  of  plants. 

ASSIMILA'TION. — The  act  by  which  liv 
ing  bodies  (plants  or  animals)  ap 
propriate  and  transform  into  their 
own  substance,  matters  with  which 
they  may  be  placed  in  contact.  As- 
similation  is  therefore  a  part  of  the 
function  of  nutrition. 

ASSO'LEMENT. — French.  The  art  of 
arranging  crops  in  proper  succes- 
sion, according  to  the  soil,  to  secure 
the  greatest  production. 


148 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


A'STER. — From  the  Greek,  aster,  a 
star.  Name  of  a  genus  of  plants. 

AT'ROPA. — From  the  Greek,  atropos, 
"  the  Goddess  of  Destiny;"  so  called 
from  its  fatal  effects.  Name  of  a 
genus  of  plants. 

AURANTIA'CE^E. — From  the  Latin,  au- 
rantium,  an  orange.  Name  of  an 
order  of  plants. 

AURA'NTIUM. — Latin.     An  orange. 

AURI'CULATE. — From  the  Latin,  auri- 
cula, a  little  ear.  A  form  of  leaf 
which  has  ear-like  lobes  or  projec- 
tions at  the  base. 

AUTOMA'TJC. — From  the  Greek,  avtos, 
self,  maten,  easily,  or  automates, 
spontaneously.  That  which  acts 
of  itself. 

A' VENA. — Latin.     Oats. 

AWNED. — Terminating  in  a  long  hard 
bristle. 

A'XIL. — From  the  Latin,  axilla,  arm- 
pit. The  angle  or  point  at  which  a 
leaf  or  branch  unites  with  the  stem. 

A'XILLARV. — Belonging  to  an  axil  or 
axilla. 

A'ZOTE. — From  the  Greek,  a,  priva- 
tive, and  zoe,  life.  A  name  given 
to  nitrogen  because  it  will  not  sup- 
port animal  life. 

BAMBU'SA. — Bamboo. 

BATA'TAS. — Sweet  potatoes. 

BICRENATE.  —  From  the  Latin,  bis, 
two,  and  crena,  a  notch,  a  slit. 
Doubly  crenate. 

BJE'NNIAL.— From  the  Latin,  bis,  two, 
and  annus,  year.  A  term  applied 
to  plants  which  grow  one  year  and 
flower  the  next,  after  which  they 
perish;  they  only  differ  from  an- 
nuals in  requiring  a  longer  time  to 
produce  fruit. 

BIFURCATION. — From  the  Latin,  bis, 
two,  and  furca,  fork.  The  point 
where  a  part  forms  two  branches 
like  a  fork. 

BIJU'GATE. — From  the  Latin,  bis,  two, 
and  jugum,  yoke.  A  leaf  formed 
of  two  pairs  of  leaflets. 

BILO'BATE. — Having  two  lobes. 

BILO'CULAR. —  From  the  Latin,  bis, 
two,  and  loculus,  partition.  Hav- 
ing two  cells. 

BI'NATE. — From  the  Latin,  bis,  two, 
and  nalus,  grown.  A  form  of  leaf 
composed  of  two  leaflets. 


BIPIN'NATE. — Doubly  pinnate. 

BITE'RNATE. — Doubly  ternate. 

BITU'MINOUS. — Relating  to  bitu'men; 
mineral  pitch. 

BIVA'LVE. — From  the  Latin,  bis,  two, 
and  valva,  door.  Composed  of  two 
parts,  joined  together  like  doors. 

BORAGI'NE^E,  or  Boragina'ceae.  Name 
of  a  family  of  plants  of  whicli  the 
Borago  is  the  type. 

BO'TANV. — From  the  Greek,  botane,  a 
plant.  Natural  history  of  plants. 

BRA'SSICA. — Latin.     Cabbage. 

BRACT. — From  the  Latin,  bractea,  a 
thin  leaf  of  metal.  A  floral  leaf 
different  in  colour  from  other  leaves 

BRA'CTE^E. — Latin.     Bracts. 

BULB. — A  collection  of  fleshy  scales 
arranged  like  those  of  a  bud,  of 
which  the  bulb  is  a  slight  modifi- 
cation, separating  spontaneously 
from  the  stem  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  emitting  roots  from  its  base. 

BU'LBOUS. — Belonging  or  relating  to  a 
bulb. 

CADU'COUS. — From  the  Latin,  cado,  I 
fall.  Applied  to  leaves  which  fall 
off  early. 

C^'sius. — Latin.     Grey. 

CA'LAMUS. — A  genus  of  palms. 

CA'LICES. — Latin.     Plural  of  calyx. 

CA'LYX. — The  cup  of  a  flower. 

CALY'PTRA. — From  the  Greek,  kalup- 
tra,  a  covering.  Part  of  the  cap- 
sule of  a  moss. 

CA'MBIUM.  —  A  low  Latin  word  for 
liquid  which^ becomes  glutinous. 

CAMEL' LIA. — A  genus  of  the  family 
of  Aurantia'ceae,  named  in  honour 
of  Ivamel,  a  botanist. 

CAMPA'NULATE. — Bell-shaped. 

CAMPANU'LIFORM.  —  From  the  Latin 
campanula,  a  little  bell,  and  forma, 
shape.  In  shape  of  a  bell. 

CANI'CULATED.  —  Channelled  or  fur- 
rowed. 

CANNA'BIS. — Latin.     Hemp. 

CAPI'LLARV. — From  the  Latin,  capil- 
lus,  a  hair.  Hair-like. 

CA'PITAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  caput, 
head.  An  assemblage  of  flowers 
on  a  common  receptacle. 

CAPITA' TI,  flores. — Flowers  collected 
into  heads,  as  thistles  and  other 
plants,  with  compound  flowers 
growing  with  a  head. 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


149 


CAPITA'TUS. — Headed. 

CAPI'TULUM. — Latin.     A  capital. 

CA'PPARIS. — Latin.     Caper-bush. 

CApRiFoLu'cEyE. —  Systematic  name 
of  a  family  of  plants,  formed  from 
tlie  genus Caprifolium,  which  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  capra,  goat, 
and  folium,  leaf. 

CAPSU'LE. — From  the  Latin,  capsula, 
a  little  casket  or  chest.  A  form  of 
fruit. 

CA'RBON. — See  page  53. 

CA'RICA. — Latin.     A  kind  of  dry  fig. 

CA'RINA. — Latin.     A  keel. 

CA'RPEL. — From  the  Greek,  karpos, 
fruit.  Certain  appendages  or  parts 
of  the  pistil  are  called  carpels. 

CARYOPHYL'LE^:.  —  From  the  Latin, 
caryo'phyllus,  the  garden  pink. 
Systematic  name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

CARYOPHYLLA'CEOUS. —  Belonging  or 
relating  to  the  caryophylleae. 

CARYO'PSIS. — From  the  Greek,  karvon, 
a  nut,  and  opsis,  resemblance.  Name 
of  a  form  of  fruit,  as  the  grain  of 
wheat,  for  example. 

CASTA'NEA. — Latin.     Chestnut. 

CA'TKIN. — A  form  of  inflorescence. 

CAU'DEX.  —  Latin.  A  trunk  of  a 
tree. 

CAULIS. — Latin.     Stem. 

CAU'STIC. — From  the  Greek,  fond,  I 
burn.  Substances  which  possess 
the  property  of  destroying  organic 
structure  are  so  termed. 

CE'LLULAR. — Composed  of  cells. 

CENOMY'CE. — From  the  Greek,  kenos, 
empty,  and  mukes,  a  diminutive 
fungus.  A  kind  of  lichen. 

CERA'SUS. — Latin.     A  cherry  tree. 

CE'REAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  ceres, 
corn.  Applied  to  grasses  which 
produce  the  bread  corns  ;  as  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  maize,  rice  and 
millet. 

CHENOPO'DE^E. — From  the  Greek,  chen, 
goose,  and  pous,  foot.  Name  of  a 
family  of  apetalous  dicotyledons. 

CHICORA'CE^E. — From  the  Greek,  ki- 
chore,  garden  succory.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  plants. 

CHOND'RUS  —  (pronounced    Tcond'rus). 
From  the  Greek,  Chondros,  carti- 
lage.   Name  of  a  genus   of  sea- 
weeds. 
13* 


ICA'TRICES. — Plural  of  cicatrix. 

CICA'TRIX. — Latin.     A  scar. 

LIA'TUS. — Latin  (from  cilium,  eye- 
lash).  Having  the  margin  guarded 
by  parallel  bristles,  like  the  eye- 
lash. 

NCHO'NA  —  (pronounced  sinkdnah). 
Name  of  Peruvian  bark,  so  called 
from  the  Spanish  Viceroy's  lady, 
the  Countess  of  Cinchon,  who  was 
cured  of  fever  by  it,  at  Lima,  about 
1638. 

CIRR'OSO-PIXNATE. — From  the  Latin, 
cir'rus,  a  tendril,  and  pinna,  wing. 
A  form  of  pinnate  leaf  having  ten- 
drils at  the  extremity. 

CI'TRUS. — Latin.  Lemon  or  orange 
tree. 

CITRU'LLUS. —  Latin.  Diminutive  of 
citrus.  j 

CLAW. — The  inferior  part  of  a  petal, 
corresponding  to  the  petiole  of  a 
leaf. 

CLO'STRES. — Elongatcd,spindle-shapcd 
cells. 

CLUSTER. — When  flowers  are  borne 
on  a  common,  irregularly  branched 
peduncle,  they  form  a  cluster. 

CO'LLUM.— Latin.  Neck.  The  part 
between  the  stem  and  root. 

COMMU'NIS. — Latin.     Common. 

COM  '  POS  ITE.  — Com  poun  d . 

CONCE'NTRIC. — Having  a  common  cen- 
tre. 

CONCE'PTICLE. — Envelope  of  a  sporule. 

COM'FERJE. — From  the  Latin,  conus,  a 
cone, and  /ero,  I  bear.  Cone-bearing. 

CONM'UM. — From  the  Greek,  koneion, 
hemlock. 

CON'JUGATE. — From  the  Latin,  con, 
together,  and  jugum,  a  yoke. 
Yoked  or  joined  together. 

CON'NATE. — From  the  Latin,  con,  to- 
gether, and  natus,  grown.  Joined 
together  at  the  base. 

CONNEC'TIVE. — From  the  Latin,  con- 
necto,  I  join  together. 

CONVO'LVULUS.  —  Latin.  Bind-weed. 
(From  convolo,  I  bind  together  or 
entwine.) 

CONVOLVULA'CE*:. — Systematic  name 
of  a  family  of  plants. 

COR'DATE. — Heart-shaped. 

CO'RDJFORM. — From  the  Latin,  cor,  the 
heart,  and  forma,  shape.  Heart- 
shaped. 


150 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


CORIA'CEOUS.  —  From  the  Latin,  cori- 

um,  liide  of  a  beast.     Leathery. 
CORISANTHE'RE.E.  —  From  the    Greek, 

koris,  St.  John's  wort,   and   anthos, 

flower.      Systematic   name    of   a 

class  of  plants. 
CO'RMUS.  —  From   the  Greek,  kormos, 

stern.     The   representative   of  the 

stem  in  bulbous  plants. 
CORO'LLA.  —  Latin.     A  little  crown. 
CORO'LL^E.  —  Plural  of  Corolla. 
CORFI/SCULE.  —  From  the  Latin,corpws, 

body.     A  diminutive  body. 
COR'RUGATED.  —  From  the  Latin,  con, 

together,    and     ruga,   a    wrinkle. 

Wrinkled. 
CO'RTICAL.  —  From  the  Latin  cortex, 

bark.     Belonging  to  or  partaking 

of  the  nature  of  bark. 
CO'RVMB.  —  From  the  Greek  korumbos, 

a  helmet,  a  summit. 
COTY'LEDON.  —  From  the  Greek,  kotu- 

leddn,  seed-lobe. 
COT  YLE'  DO  NOUS.  —  Belonging  or  relat- 

ing to  a  cotyledon. 
CRE'NATE.  —  Having  rounded  teeth. 
CRE'NULATE.  —  Finely  crenate. 
CRENULA'TION.  —  A  rounded  tooth. 
CRJ'NES.  —  Latin.     Hairs. 
CRI'NITUS.  —  Latin.     Hairy. 
CRUCI'FER^E.  —  From  the  Latin,  crux, 

a  cross,  and  fero,  I  bear.  The  flow- 

ers   being   in   form   of  a   Maltese 

cross.     Systematic  name  of  an  or- 

der of  plants. 

CRU'CIFORM.  —  Cross-shaped. 
CRYPTOGA'MIA.  —  From     the    Greek, 

kruptos,  concealed,  and  gamos,  mar- 

riage.    Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 
CRYPTO'GAMOUS.  —  Belonging  or  relat- 

ing to  Crvptoga'mia. 
CUCU'MIS.—  Latin.     A  cucumber. 
CUCURBITA'CE^E.  —  From     the   Latin, 

cucurbita,  a  gourd.     Name  of  a  fa- 

mily of  plants. 
CULM.  —  From    the  Latin,  culrrws,  a 

stem.     The  stems  of  the  grasses. 
From  the  Latin,  «,»™», 

Wege- 


CU'PULE.  —  A  little  cup. 
CUPULI'FERJE.  —  From   the  Latin,   cu- 

Clum,   a   little   cup,   and  fero,   I 
nr. 

CURVINERVE.  —  See  page  32. 
CU'SPIDATE.  —  From  the  Latin,  cuspis, 


a  point.  A  form  of  leaf  terminal- 
ing  in  a  point. 

CU'TICLE. —  From  the  Latin,  cutis, 
skin.  The  scarf-skin.  The  exter- 
nal covering  of  plants. 

CYA'THIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  cya- 
thus,  a  drinking -cup,  and  forma, 
shape.  A  form  of  corolla. 

DECAGY'NIA.— From  the  Greek,  deca, 
ten,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name  of  an 
order  of  plants. 

DECA'NDRIA.— From  the  Greek,  deca, 
ten,  and  oner,  stamen.  Name  of  a 
class  of  plants. 

DE'CIDUOUS. — From  the  Latin,  decide, 
to  fall  off.  Applied  to  plants  whose 
leaves  fall  in  the  autumn,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  evergreens. 

DECOMPO'SE. — When  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  substances  is  altered, 
they  are  said  to  be  decomposed. 

DEHI'SCKNT. — From  the  Latin,  dehi. 
scere,  to  gape  wide  open.  Applied 
to  certain  fruits. 

DE'LTOID. — From  the  Greek  A,  delta, 
and  eidos,  resemblance.  A  form 
of  leaf  (page  45). 

DE'NTATE.  —  From  the  Latin,  dens, 
tooth.  Toothed. 

DIADE'LPHIA. — From  the  Greek,  dis, 
two,  and  delphos,  brotherhood. 
Name  of  a  Linnaean  class. 

DIA'NDRIA. — From  the  Greek,  dis,  two, 
and  aner,  stamen.  Name  of  a  class 
of  plants. 

DIA'NDROUS. — Having  two  stamens. 

DICU'NI^E. — From  the  Greek,  dis,  two, 
and  klinos,  bed.  Name  of  a  divi- 
sion of  plants. 

DICLI'NOUS. — From  theGr.<Zis,two,  and 
klin?,  bed.  Having-  the  stamens  in 
one  flower  and  the  pistils  in  another. 

DICOTY'LEDON. — From  the  Greek,  dis, 
two,  and  kottiledon,  seed-lobe. 

DJCOTYLE'DONOUS. — Relating  to  dico- 
tyledons. 

DIDYNA'MIA. — From  the  Greek,  dis, 
two,  and  dunamis,  power.  Name 
of  a  Linntean  class,  having  two 
long  and  two  shorter  stamens. 

DIDY'NAMOUS.— Relating  to  didynamia. 

DI'GITATE. — From  the  Latin,  digitus, 
finger.  Spread  out  like  fingers. 

DIGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  dis,  two, 
and  gune,  pistil.  Name  of  an  order 
of  plants. 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


151 


DICE'CIA. — From  the  Greek,  dis,  two, 
and  oikia,  house.  Name  of  a  Lin- 
nesan  class. 

DICE'CIOUS. — Relating  to  dioscia. 

DIPE'TALOUS. — From  the  Greek,  dis, 
two,  and  petalon,  a  petal.  Having 
two  petals. 

DODECAGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  do- 
decn,  twelve,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name 
of  an  order  of  plants. 

DODECA'I\?DRIA. — From  the  Greek,  do- 
deca,  twelve,  and  aner,  stamen. 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

DOME'STICA. — Latin.     Domestic. 

DOR'SAL. — From  the  Latin,  dorsum, 
the  back. 

DULCAMA'RA. — From  the  Latin,du/cis, 
sweet,  and  amara,  bitter.  Bitter- 
sweet. Systematic  name  of  a  ge- 
nus of  plants. 

DURA'MEN.  —  Latin.  A  hardening. 
Systematic  name  of  heart-wood. 

E'DULIS.— Latin.     Eatable.     Edible. 

ELABORA'TION. — See  question,  page  55. 

EM'BRYO. — From  the  Greek,  embruon, 
from  bruo,  I  bud  forth. 

EMA'RGINATE.  —  From  the  Latin,  e, 
from,  and  margo,  margin  or  edge. 
Notched. 

ENTI'RE. — Even  or  whole  on  the  edge. 

EN'DOGENS. — See  note,  page  22. 

ENDO'GENOUS. — See  page  22. 

EN'DOCARP.— From  the  Greek,  endon, 
within,  and  karpos,  fruit.  An  in- 
ternal membrane  of  fruits. 

EN'DOSPERM. — From  the  Greek,endon, 
within,  and  sperma,  seed. 

EN  DO  SPERM  A' TIC. — Belonging  or  relat- 
ing to  endosperm. 

ENNEAGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  en- 
nea,  nine,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name 
of  an  order  of  plants. 

ENNEA'NDRIA. — From  the  Greek,  en- 
nea,  nine,  and  aner,  stamen.  Name 
of  a  class  of  plants. 

E'PICARP. — From  the  Greek,  epi,  upon, 
and  karpos,  fruit. 

EPICORO'LLE*;. — From  the  Greek,  epi, 
upon,  and  corolla.  Name  of  a  class 
of  plants. 

EPIDF/RMIS. — From  the  Greek,  epi, 
upon,  and  derma,  skin.  The  cu- 
ticle. 

EPIGY'NE^E. — From  the  Greek,  epi, 
upon,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name  of  a 
class  of  plants. 


EPIGY'NOUS.— Belonging  or  relating 
to  Epigynea. 

EPIPK'TALOUS. — From  the  Greek,  epi, 
upon,  and  petalon,  petal. 

E'PISPERM. — From  the  Greek,  epi,  up- 
on,  and  sperma,  seed. 

EPISPERMA'TIC. — Relating  to  episperm. 

ESSE'NTIAL  OILS,  or  VO'LATILE  OILS. — 
Under  this  term  are  included  all 
those  peculiar  compounds  obtained 
by  distilling  vegetable  substances 
with  water  ;  anid  which  pass  over 
along  with  the  steam,  and  are  af- 
terwards condensed  in  the  liquid  or 
solid  form.  They  appear  to  con- 
stitute the  odorous  principle  of  ve- 
getables. 

EUROPE'A. — Latin.     European. 

EUFHORBIA'CE^E. — From  eupho'rbium, 
which  was  named  in  honour  of 
Euphorbus,  physician  to  king  Juba. 
Name  of  a  family  of  plants. 

EXCRE'TORY. — See  page  57. 

EXCRE'TION. — See  note,  page  57. 

EXHALA'TION. — From  the  Latin,  ex- 
hal'are,  to  throw  out.  See  page  51. 

EX'OGENS. — See  note,  page  22. 

EXO'GENOUS. — See  page  22. 

EXTRA-EM'BRYO. — When  the  embryo 
is  simply  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  albumen  or  envelopes,  it  is  said 
to  be  extra  (outside)  from  its  po- 
sition. 

FARINA'CEOUS. — From  the  Latin,  fa. 
rina,  meal,  flour.  Partaking  of  the 
nature  of  flour. 

FASCI'CULUS. — Latin.     A  bundle. 

FASCI'CULI. — Plural  of  fasciculus. 

FASCI'CULATE. — Collected  in  bundles. 

FE'CULA. — From  the  Latin,  fcex,  a 
sediment.  When  certain  vegetable 
substances  are  bruised  and  mixed 
with  water,  the  pulverulent  matter 
which  subsides  is  called  the/ecu/a  ; 
it  is  commonly  of  a  starchy  nature, 
hence  starch  is  often  called  fecula. 

Fi'cus. — Latin.     A  fig. 

FI'LAMENT.  —  From  the  Latin  Jila- 
mentum,  a  shred.  A  little  thread, 
like  part  of  a  stamen. 

FILAME'NTOUS. — Of  the  nature  of  a 
filament 

FI'LIFORM. — Thread-like. 

FI'LICES.— Latin.     Ferns. 

FLOWER. — That  part  in  which  the 
germ  of  a  new  plant  is  produced 


152 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


FLO'RAL. — Relating  to  flowers.  Flo- 
ral leaf  is  that  one  from  the  axil 
of  which  the  peduncle  or  pedicil 
of  a  flower  rises. 

FOLIA'CEOUS. — Leafy. 

FO'LIUM. — Latin.     A  leaf! 

FOLLI'CULA. — From  the  Latin,  follis, 
a  bag.  A  little  bag. 

FRONS  or  FROND.  —  The  leaves  of 
crypto'gamous  plants. 

FRUCTIFICA'TION.  —  The  flower  and 
fruit  with  their  parts. 

FRUIT. — An  assemblage  of  the  germs 
and  protecting  parts  destined  to 
become  a  new  plant  or  perfect 
seed. 

FU'NCTION. — From  the  Latin,  fungor, 
I  act  or  discharge  an  office.  The 
action  of  an  organ  or  system  of 
organs. 

Fu'ci. — Latin.  Plural  of  fucus,  a 
sea-weed. 

FUN'GI. — Latin.  Plural  of  fungus,  a 
mushroom. 

FUNI'CULA. — From  the  Latin,  funis,  a 
cord.  A  little  cord. 

FU'SIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  fusus, 
a  spindle,  and/orma,  shape.  Spin- 
dle-shaped. 

GA'LVANISM.  —  From  Professor  Gal- 
vani,  the  discoverer.  The  name 
given  as  a  general  term  to  the 
electrical  phenomena  produced  by 
the  contact  of  different  metals. 

GAMOPK'TALOUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
gamoSj  union,  and  petalon,  petal. 
A  corolla  composed  of  a  single 
piece  is  so  called. 

GAMOSE'PALOUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
gamos,  marriage,  and  sepal.  Hav- 
ing the  sepals  united  together, 
forming  a  single  piece  or  sepal. 

GAS. — From  the  German,  geist,  spirit. 
The  name  given  to  all  permanently 
elastic  fluids,  or  airs  differing 
from  atmospheric  air. 

GE'MINI. — Latin.     Twins. 

GE'MINATE. — Growing  in  pairs. 

GE'MMINAL. — From  the  Latin,  gem- 
ma, a  bud.  Relating  to  buds. 

GE'MMULE. — A  little  bud. 

GERMINA'TION. —  The  process  of  the 
development  of  the  seed  and  the 
embryo  which  it  contains. 

GERMINA'TJVE.— Relating  to  germina- 
tion. 


GLAND. — An  organ  for  the  purpose 
of  secreting  a  peculiar  fluid,  &c.  - 

GLA'NDULAR. — Relating  to  glands. 

GLO'CHIS. — From  the  Greek,  gldchist 
a  point.  A  barb. 

GLOCHIDA'TUS. — Armed  with  points 
or  barbs. 

GLUME. — A  husk. 

GLU'TEN. — Latin.  The  viscid  elastic 
substance  which  remains  when 
wheat  flour  is  wrapped  in  a  coarse 
cloth,  and  washed  under  a  stream 
of  water,  so  as  to  carry  off  the 
starch  and  soluble  matters. 

GLU'TINOUS. — Viscid,  sticky,  adhesive. 

GOSSY'PIUM. — Latin.     Cotton. 

GOU'RMANO.  —  French.  A  glutton. 
One  particular  in  his  food. 

GRAFT. — See  p.  60. 

GRAMI'NE^E. — From  the  Latin,  gra- 
men,  grass.  Systematic  name  of 
the  family  of  grasses. 

GRA'NULE. — A  diminutive  grain. 

GUM. — A  vegetable  product  which  is 
tasteless  and  inodorous,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  being  soluble  in 
water  and  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

GY'NOPHORE. — From  the  Greek,  gune, 
pistil,  and  phoreo,  I  support.  A 
support  of  the  pistil. 

GYMNOSPE'RMIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
gumnos,  naked,  and  sperma,  seed. 
Name  of  a  Linnrean  order. 

GYNA'NDRIA. — See  page  102. 

HA'MI. — Latin.  Plural  of  hamus,  a 
hook. 

HA'STATE. — See  page  36. 

HERBA'CEUM. — Latin.     Herbaceous. 

HERBA'CEOUS. — Herb-like  ;  that  per- 
ishes every  year.  An  annual  stem. 
Not  woody. 

HELIA'NTHUS. — See  page  51. 

HERMA'PHRODITE. — From  the  Greek, 
frmes,  Mercury,  and  aphrodite, 
Venus.  An  organized  body  com- 
bining in  reality  or  appearance  the 
characteristics  of  both  sexes. 

HF.PTAGY'NIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
hepta,  seven,  arid  gune,  pistil. 
Name  of  an  order  of  plants.  See 
page  103. 

HEPTAN'DRIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
hepta,  seven,  and  aner,  stamen 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

HESPERI'BE  or  HESPERI'DIUM.  —  A 
form  of  fruit. 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


153 


HEPTAGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  exa, 
six,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name  of  an 
order  of  plants. 

HEXA'NDRIA. — From  the  Greek  exa, 
six,  and  oner,  stamen.  Name  of  a 
class  of  plants. 

HIBER'NATE. — From  the  Latin,  hiber- 
nare,  to  winter.  Animals  that 
retire  and  sleep  throughout  the 
winter  are  said  to  hibernate. 

HI'LUM.  —  Latin.  The  little  black 
spot  on  a  bean. 

HIRSU'TUS. — Latin.    Hairy. 

HOMOGE'NEOUS. — See  page  23. 

HOR'DEUM. — Latin.     Barley. 

HU'MULUS. — Latin.     Hops. 

HYDROCYA'NIC.  —  From  the  Greek, 
udor,  water,  and  kuanos,  blue.  The 
name  of  an  intensely  poisonous  and 
peculiar  acid. 

HYME'NIUM. — From  the  Greek,  umen, 
a  membrane. 

HYPOCRATE'RIFORM. — From  the  Greek, 
vpo,  under,  krater,  cup,  and  phorme, 
shape.  Salver-shaped. 

HYPOGY'NOUS. — From  the  Greek,  upo, 
under,  and  gune,  pistil.  Arising 
beneath  the  ovary. 

HYPOPETA'LE^;.  —  From  the  Greek, 
upo,  beneath,  and  petalon,  petal. 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

HYPOPE'TALOUS. — Relating  to  hypo- 
petaleae. 

HYOSCIA'MUS. — From  the  Greek,  us,  a 
swine,  and  kua?nos,  a  bean.  Hen- 
bane. 

ID^E'US. — Latin.  Belonging  or  relat- 
ing to  Mount  Ida. 

IM'BRICATE.  —  Tiled.  When  the 
scales  of  a  stalk  or  calyx  lie  over 
one  another  in  the  manner  of  tiles 
or  shingles  on  a  house. 

INCI'SA. — Latin.     Cut,  carved,  cut  off. 

IN'DICA. — Latin.     Indian. 

INDI'GENOUS. — Native  to  a  country. 

INDEHI'SCENT. — See  DEHISCENT. 

INFLORE'SCENCE.  —  The  flowering  of 
plants. 

INFO'LDED. — Folded  in. 

INFUNDI'BULAR. — From  the  Latin,  in- 
fundibulum,  a  funnel.  Funnel- 
shaped. 

INTE'GUMENT.  —  From  the  Latin,  te- 
gere,  to  cover.  The  covering,  the 
skin. 

INTERCE'LLULAR. —  From   the  Latin, 


inter,  between,  and   cellula,   little 

cells.     Placed  between  cells. 
INVOLU'CRE. — An  accessory  envelope 

of  a  flower,  formed  of  bracts. 
INVOLU'CRUM. — Latin.     Involucre. 
IRI'DE^E.  —  Systematic    name    of   a 

family  of  plants  of  which  the  Iris 

is  the  type. 

I'SOLATED. — Separated  ;  alone. 
JASMI'NE^E. — Systematic   name   of   a 

family  of  plants  of  which  the  jas- 
mine is  the  type. 
LABIA'T^E. — Systematic   name   of  a 

family  of  plants  known  by  having 

a   labiate     or     two-lipped     corolla 

(page  125). 
LABIA'T^E. — From  the  Latin,  labium, 

lip.     Having  lips. 
LABU'RMJM.  —  Latin.      Name    of   a 

plant. 

LACI'NIATE. — See  page  35. 
LACU'NA. — Latin.    A  pit,  a  hollow,  a 

vacuity. 

LACU'N.E. — Latin.     Flural  of  lacuna. 
LA'MINA. — Latin.     A  thin  plate. 
LA'MIN.E. — Latin.     Plural  of  lamina. 
LANCEOLATE. — See  page  43. 
LA'TEX. — Latin.      A   peculiar   fluid, 

which  is  usually  turbid,  and  of  a 

red,  white,  or  yellow  colour. 
LAURI'NE^E, — From  the  Latin,  laurus, 

a  laurel  or  bay  tree.     Name  of  a 

family  of  plants. 
LEGU'ME. — From  the  Latin,  legu'men, 

all  kinds  of  beans,  peas,  £c.      A 

form  of  fruit. 
LEGUMINO'S^E. — Systematic  name  of  a 

family  of  plants. 

LENTI'CULAR. — Shaped  like  a  lens. 
LIBER. — Latin.     Bark. 
LIG'NEOUS. — Woody. 
LIG'NIN. — Solid  matter  found  in  the 

elongated  cells  of  wood. 
LIUA'CE^E.  —  Name  of  a   family  of 

plants. 
LIMB. — The  spreading  part  or  border 

of  a  leaf  or  petal. 
LI'JVEAR. — See  page  34. 
LINIARIFO'LIUS.— See  page  34. 
LI'NUM. — Latin.     Flax. 
LOBED. — Composed  of  lobes. 
LO'LIUM. — Latin.     Darnel. 
LOME'NTUM.— A  form  of  fruit. 
LU'PULUS. — Latin.     Little  hops. 
LYCOPODIA'CE^E. — From  Lycopodium, 

formed  from  the  Greek,  lukos,  wolf, 


154 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


and  pous,  foot.  Systematic  name 
of  a  family  of  plants. 

MACULA'TUM. — Latin.  Spotted.  Mot- 
tled. 

MA'LUS. — Latin.     An  apple  tree. 

MAKVA'CE^E. — Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

MA.MMALA'TED. — Studded  with  nipple- 
like  projections. 

MARCE'SCENT. — See  question,  page  34. 

MATURA'TION. — The  act  of  ripening. 

MEA'TUS.  —  Latin.  A  passage,  a 
pore. 

MK'DICA. — Latin.    Medicinal. 

MEDU'LLARY. — From  the  Latin,  me- 
dull'i,  pith.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  pith. 

MK'LO. — Latin.  A  melon. 

MELON  I'DE. — A  form  of  fruit. 

MEM'BKANOUS. — Composed  of  mem- 
brane. 

ME'SOCARP. — From  the  Greek,  mesos, 
middle,  and  carpos,  fruit.  The  cen- 
tral envelope  of  fruit. 

MIMO'S^E.  —  Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

MI'TKIFORM. — Shaped  like  a  mitre. 

MONA'NDRIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
monos,  single,  and  aner,  stamen. 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

MONA'NDROUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
monos,  single,  and  aner,  stamen. 
Having  but  one  stamen. 

MONI'LIKORM. — From  the  Latin,  mo- 
nile,  a  necklace.  Like  a  necklace. 

AIONCE'CIA. — From  the  Greek,  monos, 
single,  and  oikia,  house.  Name  of 
a  Linnsean  class. 

MONCE'CIOUS. — Having  flowers  with 
stamens  alone,  and  flowers  with 
pistils  alone  on  the  same  plant. 

MONOCHLA'MYDOUS. — From  the  Greek, 
monos,  one,  chlamus,  cloak,  and 
eidos,  resemblance.  Seemingly 
having  but  one  covering. 

MONOCOTY'LEDON. — From  the  Greek, 
monos,  one,  and  kotuledon,  seed- 
lobe.  A  plant  whose  seeds  have 
but  one  seed-lobe. 

MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS.  —  Having  but 
one  seed-lobe. 

MONODE'LPHIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
monos,  single,  and  delphos,  brother- 
hood. Name  of  a  Linnsean  class. 

MONODE'LPHOUS.  —  Relating  to  one 
brotherhood. 


MONOGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  mo- 
nos,  single,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name 
of  an  order  of  plants. 

MOXOHYPOGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek, 
monos,  single,  vpo,  below,  and 
gune,  pistil.  Name  of  a  class  of 
plants. 

MONOPERIOY'NIA. — From  the  Greek, 
monos,  single,  peri,  around,  and 
gune,  pistil.  Name  of  a  class  of 
plants. 

MUNOPETA'LK.C.  —  From  the  Greek, 
monos,  single,  pelalon,  a  petaL 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

MO.NOPF/TALOUS.  —  Same  derivation. 
Consisting  of  one  petal. 

MONOSE'PALOUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
monos,  one,  and  sepal.  Consisting 
of  one  sepal. 

fFrom   the   Greek, 

MONOSPERMA'TIC.  J    monos,        single, 

MONOSPE'RMOUS.    j    and  sperma,  seed. 
[   Having  one  seed. 

MORUS. — Latin.     The  mulberry  tree. 

MU'CRONATE. — See  page  35. 

MULTIPARTITE. — See  page  43. 

Mu'sci. — Latin.     Mosses. 

MUCEDI'NE*. — Moulds. 

MUSCI'PULA.  —  Latin.  A  fly  or 
mouse-trap. 

MYRTA'CE^E. — Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

NA'PJFORM. — From  the  Latin,  napus, 
turnip,  and  forma,  shape.  Turnip- 
shaped. 

NARCO'TIC. — From  the  Greek,  narke, 
torpor.  Medicines  which  produce 
drowsiness,  sleep,  and  stupor  are  so 
called. 

NARCI'SSE^E. — Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

NAUSEA. — From  the  Greek,  nous,  a 
ship  ;  because  those  unaccustomed 
to  sailing  are  so  affected.  Sick- 
ness. A  desire  to  vomit. 

NECESSA'RIA. — Latin.     Necessary. 

NE'CTARY. — See  page  75. 

NERVA'TION. — See  page  33. 

NICOTIA'NA.  —  Generic  name  of  the 
tobacco  plant,  derived  from  Nicot, 
a  Frenchman,  who  first  sent  to- 
bacco to  France,  about  the  year 
1560. 

NI'GRA. — Latin.     Black. 

NI'TROOEN. — See  page  53. 

NU'TRITIVE. — Affording  nourishment 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


155 


OB. — See  page  35. 

OB' CORDATE. — See  page  35. 

OBO'VATE. — See  page  42. 

O'ciiRE^E. — Latin.  Boot.  See  page 
34. 

OCTA'GONAL. — From  the  Greek,  octo, 
eight,  and  gonia,  angle.  Relating 
to  an  octagon,  a  figure  contained 
in  eight  sides,  and  having  eight 
angles. 

OCTAGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  octo, 
eight,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name  of  an 
order  of  plants. 

OCTA'NDRIA. — From  the  Greek,  octo, 
eight,  and  aner,  stamen.  Name  of 
a  class  of  plants. 

O'JLEA. — Latin.     An  olive  tree. 

OJLEA'GINOUS. — From  the  Latin,  oleum, 
oil.  Oily ;  unctuous. 

OP'POSITE. — Standing  against  each 
other  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem. 

O'RANGERY. — A  kind  of  gallery,  for 
the  preservation  of  orange  trees, 
during  the  winter. 

ORBI'CULATE. — See  page  42. 

O'RGAN. — From  the  Greek,  organon, 
an  instrument.  Part  of  an  or- 
ganized being,  destined  to  exer- 
cise some  particular  function  ;  for 
example,  the  ears  are  the  organs 
of  hearing,  the  muscles  are  the 
organs  of  motion,  &c. 

ORGA'NIC. — Relating  to  an  organ. 

ORGANIZA'TION. — A  mode  of  structure. 

O'RNUS. — Latin.     A  wild  ash. 

ORY'ZA. — Latin.     Rice. 

O'VARY. — From  the  Latin,  ovum,  an 
egg.  A  hollow  case,  enclosing  the 
ovules  or  young  seeds,  which  ulti- 
mately become  fruit. 

OVA'RIAN. — Relating  to  the  ovary. 

O'VOID. — Egg-shaped. 

O'VULE. — A  young  seed. 

PA'CHYDERM.  —  From  the  Greek, 
pachus,  thick,  and  derma,  skin. 
Name  of  an  order  of  animals. 

PA'LEA. — Latin.     Chaff. 

PA'LE^E. — Plural  of  palea. 

PALMA'CE^E. — Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

PA'LMATE. — See  page  42. 

PALMA'TO-LOBATE. — See  page  36. 

PALMINE'RVE. — See  question,  page  31. 

PA'NICLE. — A  loose  irregular  bunch 
of  flowers  with  subdivided 
branches. 


PANDU'RATE. — See  page  39. 

PANDU'RIFORM. — Same  as  pandurate. 

PAPA'VER. — Latin.     Poppy. 

PAPAVERA'CE^E. — Name  of  a  family 
of  plants. 

PAPILIONA'CE.E. — From  the  Latin,  pa. 
pilio,  a  butterfly.  Name  of  a 
family  of  plants  whose  flowers  are 
supposed  to  resemble  a  butterfly. 

PAPILJONA'CEOUS. — See  page  75. 

PAPYRIFE'RA. — From  the  Latin,  pa', 
pyrus,  a  kind  of  paper,  and  /ero,  I 
bear.  Specific  name  of  a  plant. 

PA'RASITE. — A  hanger-on  ;  an  adhe- 
rent. 

PARE'NCHYMA. — See  page  29. 

PARENCHY'MATOUS. — See  vote,  page  29. 

PARI'ETES. — From  the  Latin,  pari'es, 
a  wall.  The  sides  or  parts  form- 
ing an  enclosure:  the  limits  of 
different  organic  cavities  are  so 
termed. 

PARTI'TE. — Deeply  divided.  See  page 
43. 

PE'DATE. — See  page  47. 

PEDA'LINERVE. — See  page  31. 

PE'DICLE. — A  little  foot  or  support. 

PE'DICEL. — One  of  the  ramifications 
of  that  part  of  the  flower  called 
peduncle. 

PEDI'CELLATE. — Having  pedicles. 

PEDU'NCLE. — The  foot-stalk,  or  sup- 
port of  a  flower. 

PEDU'NCULATE. — Growing  on  pedun- 
cles or  foot-stalks. 

PELTA'TE. — See  page  40. 

PE'LTINERVE. — See  question,  page  31. 

PE'NNINERVE. — See  question,  page  31. 

PENTAGY'NIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
pente,  five,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name 
of  an  order  of  plants. 

PENTA'NDRIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
pcnte,  five,  and  aner,  stamen. 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

PENTA'NPROUS. — Having  five  stamens. 

PE'PO.— A  form  of  fruit. 

PERE'NNIAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  per, 
through,  and  annus,  year.  Those 
plants  whose  roots  remain  alive 
more  years  than  two,  but  whose 
stems  flower  and  perish  annually, 
are  termed  perennial. 

PERFO'LIATE. — See  page  39. 

PE'RIANTH. — From  the  Greek,  peri, 
around,  and  anthos,  flower.  The 
tegumentary  parts  of  a  flower. 


156 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


PE'RIGON. 
PERIGO'NIUM. 


PE'RICARP. — From  the  Greek,  pert, 
around,  and  carpos,  fruit.  Parts 
surrounding  the  seeds. 

f  From  the  Greek,  peri, 
around,  and  geino- 
mai,  I  grow.  A  flo- 
ral envelope,  which 
partakes  of  the  na- 
ture both  of  calyx 
and  corolla. 

PERIGY'NOUS.—  From  the  Greek,  peri, 
around,  and  gune,  pistil.  Sur- 
rounding the  pistil. 

PE'RISPERM. — From  the  Greek,  peri, 
around,  and  spermn,  seed.  Another 
name  for  the  albumen. 

PERISTA'MINE^:. — Name  of  a  class  of 
plants. 

PE'RSICA. — Latin.     Persian. 

PERSI'STENT. — Permanent.  Not  fall- 
ing. 

PE'RSONATE. — From  the  Latin,  per- 
sona, a  mask.  A  form  of  corolla. 

PERTU'SSUM. — Latin.  Broken,  crack- 
ed. 

PE'TAL. — From  the  Greek,  petalon, 
leaf.  A  part  of  the  corolla,  analo- 
gous to  a  leaf. 

PE'TIOLE. — That  portion  of  a  Jeaf 
which  connects  the  limb  or  lamina 
of  a  leaf  with  the  stem  ;  the  foot- 
stalk. 

PHANERO'GAMOUS. — From  the  Greek, 
phaneros,  evident,  and  gamos,  mar- 

|  riage.  Applied  to  plants  having 
distinct  flowers. 

PHYSIO'LOGY. — From  the  Greek,  phu- 
sis,  nature,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 
The  science  which  treats  of  the 
functions  of  animals  or  vegetables. 

PHYTI'VOROUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
phuton,  plant,  and  voro,  I  eat. 
Plant-eating. 

PI'LI. — Latin.     Plural  of  pilus,  hair. 

PI'LEUS. — Latin.     A  cap,  helmet. 

PILO'SITY. — Hai  ry  ness. 

PILO'SUS. — Latin.     Hairy. 

PI'NNATE. — See  page  42. 

PI'SUM. — Latin.     A  pea. 

PI'STIL. — From  the  Latin,  pistillum, 
a  pestle. 

PLACE'NTA. — Latin.     A  cake. 

PJLA'NTULE. — A  diminutive  plant. 

PLI'CATE. — From  the  Latin,  plicalus, 
plaited.  Folded  like  a  fan. 

PLU'MULE. — From  the  Latin, plvmula, 


a  little  feather.  A  young  diminu- 
tive stem. 

PO'DOSPERM. — From  the  Greek,  pous, 
foot,  and  sperma,  seed.  The  seed- 
stalk,  or  little  stem  which  attaches 
the  seed  to  the  placenta. 

PO'LLEN. — The  fertilizing  powder  of 
plants. 

POME. — An  apple  ;  a  form  of  fruit. 

POLYADE'LPHIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
polus,  many,  and  delphos,  brother- 
hood. Name  of  a  Linnean  class. 

POLYA'NDRIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
polus,  many,  and  aner,  stamen. 
Name  of  an  order  of  plants. 

POLYANTHOCA'RPOUS. — From  the 
Greek,  polus,  many,  anthos,  flow- 
er, and  karpos,  fruit.  Applied  to 
a  form  of  fruit  formed  of  many 
flowers. 

POLYGA'MIA. — From  the  Greek,  polus, 
many,  and  gamos,  marriage.  Name 
of  a  Linnean  class. 

POLYGA'MOUS. — Same  derivation.  Re- 
lating to  polygamia. 

POLY'GON. — Seepage  11. 

POLY'GONAL. — Relating  to  a  polygon. 

POLYGY'NIA. — From  the  Greek,  polus, 
many,  and  gune,  pistil.  Name  of 
an  order  of  plants. 

POLYHE'DRAL.  —  From  the  Greek, 
polus,  many,  and  edra,  seat.  Relat. 
ing  to  a  polyhe'dron,  a  geometrical 
figure,  bounded  by  many  faces  or 
planes. 

POLYPE'TALE^E.  —  From  the  Greek, 
polus,  many,  and  petalon,  a  petal. 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

POLYPE'TALOUS.  —  Same  derivation. 
Having  many  petals. 

POLYSE'PALOOS. — Having  many  se- 
pals. 

PRIMUIA'CE^E.  —  From  primula,  a 
primrose.  Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

PRU'NUS. — Latin.     A  plum  tree. 

PUBE'SCENCE. — From  the  Latin,  pu- 
bescens.  Downy. 

PU'DICA. — Latin.     Modest. 

PU'MILA.— Latin.     Dwarfish,  little. 

PU'NGENT  (leaf). — See  page  35. 

PY'RUS. — Latin.     A  pear  tree. 

QUADRUMA'NA.  —  From  the  Latin, 
quadrinus,  formed  from  guatuor, 
four,  and  manus,  hand.  Having 
four  hands. 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


157 


QUATE'RNATE. — See  page  44. 
QUATERNARY. — From  the  Latin,  qua. 
ternarius,  the  number  four.     Re- 
lating to  four. 

QUATRE'NNIAL. — Every  fourth  year. 
QUE'RCUS. — Latin.     An  oak  tree. 
QUINA'RY. — Relating  to  five. 
QUINA'TE.— See  page  45. 
QUI'NQUEFID. — Five  cleft. 
QuixauEFo'LiATE. — See  page  45. 
RACE'ME. — From  the  Latin,  racemus, 

a  bunch,  a  cluster. 

RA'CHIS  (ra'kis). — From   the    Greek, 
racfiis,  the  spine,  a  branch,  which 
proceeds  in  nearly  a  straight  line 
from  the  base  to  the  apex  of  the 
inflorescence  of  a  plant. 
RA'DIATE. — From   the  Latin,  radius, 
a  spoke  of  a  wheel.     Rayed ;   di- 
verging in  rays. 
RA'DICLE. — A  little  root. 
RA'DIX. — LAtin.     A  root. 
RAMU'SCULE. — From   the    Latin,   ra- 
mus,  a  branch,  a  small  or  diminu- 
tive branch. 

RAMIFJCA'TION. — Branching,  a  branch. 
RECE'PTACLE. — A  dilated   portion  of 
the  peduncle,  containing  nutritive 
matter. 

RE'NIFORM. — See  page  40. 
RE'PANDATE. — See  page  38. 
RE' PENT. — Creeping. 
RESIDA'CE^E. — From   Resida,  one   of 
the  genera.     Name  of  a  family  of 
plants. 

RE'SIN. — Vegetable  substance,  distin- 
guishable by  its  solubility  in  alco- 
hol, and  insolubility  in  water. 
RE'SINOUS. — Of  the  nature  of  resin. 
RESPIRA'TION. — From  the  Latin,  res- 
piro,  I  take  breath.     The   act  of 
breathing.     A  function   proper  to 
animals  as  well  as  plants. 
RESPI'RATORY.  —  Belonging     to    the 

function  of  respiration. 
RETI'CULAR. — See  question,  page  13. 
RHI'ZOME.— See  page  18. 
RHO'MBOID. — See  page  41. 
RO'BUR. — Latin.     An  oak  ;  strength. 
ROSA'CE^E.— Name    of   a    family    of 

plants. 
ROSSO'LIS. — French  name  of  the  Sun 

dew,  or  Drosera. 
RO'TATE. — Wheel-shaped. 
RU'BUS. — Latin.    A  blackberry  bush 
14 


RUBIA'CE^E. — Name   of  a   family  of 

plants. 

RU'GOSE. — Rough  or  wrinkled. 
SACCHA'RUM. — Latin.  Sugar. 
SACCHARI'NE. — Sugary  ;  relating  to 

sugar. 

SA'GITATTE. — See  page  36. 
SA'RCOCARP. — From  the  Greek,  sarx, 
flesh,  and  karpos,  fruit.     The  pulp 
or  flesh  of  the  fruit. 
SA'TIVUS-A-UM. — Latin.     That   which 

may  be  planted  or  sown. 
SCAPE. — A  kind  of  stem.    See  page 

21. 
SCOPA'RIUM. — From  the  Latin,  scopa, 

butcher's  broom,  milfoil.     Specific 

name  of  a  plant. 
SCURF. — See  page  15. 
SCU'TUM. — Latin.     A  shield. 
SECA'LE  (seca'ley.") — Latin.    Rye. 
SECRE'TION. — See  page  56. 
SEED. — Seepage  66. 
SE'GMENT. — A  section  ;  a  part  cut  off". 
SEGREGA'TA. — From  the  Latin,  segre- 

gatus,   separated.       Name    of   an 

order  of  plants. 

SE'MINULES.— Diminutive  seeds. 
SEMPER'VIRENS. — See    pages  23   and 

34. 

SE'PAL. — See  page  70. 
SE'RRATE.— See  pages  38  and  41. 
SE'SSILE. — See  page  66. 
SE'TA. — Latin.     A  bristle. 
SE'TJE.— Plural  of  seta. 
SETA'CEO-ACU'MINATE. — See  page  35. 
SETO'SUS. — Latin.     Bristly. 
SHOOTS. — See  page  63. 
SI'LIQUA. — Latin.    A  pod. 
SILICULO'SA. — Diminutive  of  siliqua. 
SINA'PIS. — Latin.     Mustard. 
SI'NUATE. — See  page  37. 
SI'NUOSE. — See  page  37. 
SI'NUS. — Latin.     A   bay.     See  page 

37. 
SOLA'NE^E. — From   Solanam.      Name 

of  a  family  of  plants. 
SOLA'NUM. — Latin.     Nightshade. 
SOMNI'FERUM. — Latin,     formed    from 

somnus,   sleep,   and   fero,   I   bear. 

Sleep-inducing.     Specific  name  of 

a  poppy. 
SO'ROSE. — From   the  Greek,  soros,  a 

heap.        A  form  of  fruit. 
SPA'DIX. — A    form    of   inflorescence 

in  which  the  flowers  are  arranged 

around   a   fleshy  rachis,  and  en- 


158 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


closed  within  a  kind  of  bract, 
called  a  spathe,  as  in  palms. 

SPARSE.  —  From  the  Latin,  sparsus, 
scattered. 

SPA'RTIUM. — Latin.     Broom. 

SPA'THE. — Greek,  a  ladle.  A  form  of 
involucre. 

SPA'TULATE. — See  p.  40. 

SPE'RMODERM.  —  From  the  Greek, 
sperma,  seed,  and  derma,  skin. 
Seed-covering. 

SPIKE.  —  An  assemblage  of  axillary 
flowers  arranged  on  a  simple  axis. 

SPIKE' LET. — A  little  spike. 

SPINO'SA. — Latin.     Thorny. 

SPONGI'OLES. — Seep.  19. 

SPORE. — Seed  of  Lichens. 

SPORI'FEROUS. — From  spora,  and/ero, 
1  bear.  Bearing  spores. 

SPO'RULES. — Diminutive  spores. 

STA'MEN.  —  Latin.  Male  apparatus 
of  a  flower. 

STEM'MULE. — A  little  stem. 

STELLA'TE.— From  the  Latin,  Stella,  a 
star.  Star-shaped. 

STI'GMA.  —  The  superior  terminating 
part  of  the  pistil. 

STIGMA'TA.— Plural  of  stigma. 

STI'MULANS. — Latin.  Pricking,  irri- 
tating. 

STI'MULI. — Latin,  plural  of  stimulus. 
Stings. 

STIPE.— See  p.  22. 

STI'PULE.— See  p.  33. 

STO'MATA. — See  p.  14. 

STYLE.  —  That  part  of  the  pistil  be- 
tween the  stigma  and  ovary. 

SUB'ULATE. — Awl-shaped. — See  p.  34. 

SUC'CULENT. — Juicy. 

SUPE'RFLUA. — Latin.     Superfluous. 

SUPER-O'VARY.  —  Applied  to  flowers 
which  have  the  perianth  and  sta- 
mens above  the  ovary. 

SUPER PO'SED. — From  the  Latin,  super, 
upon,  and  pono,  I  place.  One 
lying  upon  or  placed  on  another. 

SU'TURE.  —  From  the  Latin,  suo,  I 
stitch.  A  seam  or  line  of  junction. 

SY'CONE.  —  From  the  Greek,  sukon,  a 
fig.  A  form  of  fruit. 

SYNANTHE'RE^E.  —  From  the  Greek, 
sun,  with,  and  anthos,  flower. 
Name  of  a  family  of  plants. 

SYNCA'RPOUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
sun,  with,  and  karpos,  fruit.  Ap- 


plied to  fruits  formed  of  several 
carpels. 

SYNGENE'SIA.  —  From  the  Greek,  sun, 
together,  and  geinomai,  to  grow. 
Name  of  a  Linnsean  class. 

TABAC'CUM. — Latin.     Tobacco. 

TEGUME'NTARY.  —  From  the  Latin, 
tegere,  to  cover.  Belonging  or  re- 
lating  to  covering. 

TEN'DRIL.— See  p.  34. 

TER'MINAL. — Applied  to  flowers  at  the 
extremity  of  the  stem. 

TER'NARY. — Relating  to  three. 

TER'NATE.— See  p.  44. 

TETRADY'NAMOUS. — From  the  Greek, 
teltcres,  four,  dunamis,  power.  Ap- 
plied to  plants  having  four  long  and 
two  short  stamens. 

TETRADYNA'MIA.  —  Name  of  a  Lin- 
nean  class. 

TETRAGY'NIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
tetteres,  four,  and  gune,  pistil. 
Name  of  an  order  of  plants. 

TETRA'NDRIA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
tetteres,  four,  and  aner,  stamen. 
Name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

TETRA'NDRODS.  —  Relating  to  tetran- 
dria. 

THA'LLUS.  —  A  flat  membrane  belong, 
ing  to  cellular  plants. 

THY'RSUS. — A  kind  of  cluster. 

TI'SSUE.  —  From  the  Latin,  texere, 
to  weave.  The  interlacement  or 
union  of  many  things  which  form 
a  body,  as  threads  of  flax,  silk, 
wool,  &c.,  of  which  cloths  and 
stuffs  are  made.  From  analogy 
the  term  is  employed  to  describe 
the  substances  of  which  the  organs 
of  plants  and  animals  are  com- 
posed. 

TOLA'MEN. — A  border. 

TO'RUS.  —  Terminal  portion  of  the 
pedicil. 

TRA'CHEA  (trak-ea).  —  (In  the  plural, 
tracheae).  Tubes  or  vessels  in  the 
structure  of  plants  which  are  sup- 
posed  to  convey  air. 

TRIA'NDRIA. — From  the  Greek,  treis, 
three,  and  aner,  stamen.  Name 
of  a  class  of  plants. 

TRIA'NDROUS.  —  Having  three  sta- 
mens. 

TRICO'LOR. — Latin.     Three-coloured. 

TRIE'NNIAL. — Every  three  years. 


BOTANY.— GLOSSARY. 


159 


TRI'FID.  —  Three-cleft :     divided   in 

three. 
TRIGY'MA. —  From  the  Greek,  treis, 

three,  and  gune,  pistil.     Name  of 

an  order  of  plants. 
TRI'LOBATE. — -Sec  p.  37. 
TRIOE'CIA.  —  From  the  Greek,  treis, 

three,  and  oikos,  house.     Name  of 

a  Linnean  class. 
TRIPE'TALOUS.  —  From     the    Greek, 

treis,    three,    and    petalon,    petal. 

Having  three  petals. 
TRIPI'NNATE. — See  p.  47. 
TRITE'RNATE. — See  p.  44. 
TRI'TICUM. — Latin.     Wheat. 
TRO'PHOSPERM.  —  From    the   Greek, 

trepho,  I  nourish,  and  sperma,  seed. 

That  part  of  the  carpel  from  which 

the  seeds  spring. 
TU'BER. — Latin.     A  bunch,  a  knot,  a 

lump.     A  form  of  root. 
TU'BERCLE.  —  A  small  knot  or  projec- 
tion. 
TUBERO'SUM.  —  Latin,  tuberous.    Of 

the  nature  of  a  tuber. 
TU'BIFORM. — Tube-shaped. 
TU'BULAR.  —  Consisting  of  tubes   or 

pipes  :  relating  to  a  tube. 
UM'BEL. — A  form  of  inflorescence  in 

which   several   peduncles    expand 

so   as  to  produce    a  flower  some- 
what resembling  a  parasol  when 

open. 
UMBEJ.U'FER.*:.  —  From    umbel,    and 

fero,  I  bear.     Name  of  a  family  of 

plants. 
UMBELLI'FEROUS.  —  Belonging  to  Um- 

belliferaj. 
UN'CI.  —  Latin.     Plural    of    uncus. 

Hooks. 

UN'DULATE. — See  p.  39. 
UNGUI'CULATE. — From  the  Latin,  un- 

guis,  a  claw.     Having  a  claw. 
UNILO'CULAR. — From  the  Latin,  unus, 

one,  and  loculus,  partition  :  single- 
celled. 

UNISE'XUAL. — Of  one  sex. 
URCE'OLATE. — From  the  Latin,  urce- 

us,  a  pitcher :  pitcher-shaped. 


URTI'CE.E.  —  From  the  Latin,  vrtica, 

a   nettle.     Name   of  a   family  of 

plants. 
USITATI'SSIMUM. — Latin.     Most  com- 

mon,  familiar. 
UTRI'CULA.  —  From  the  Latin,  utri- 

cvlus,  a   little   bottle.    See  p.  11, 

Jigs.  2  and  3. 
UTRI'CULAR. — Of  or  relating  to  utri'- 

cula. 

VA'GINATE. — See  p.  34 
VALVE.  —  From    the    Latin,   vali-a, 

doors.     A  little  door. 
VA'SCULAR. — Supplied  with  vessels. 
VEGETA'TIVE. — Belonging  or  relating 

to  vegetation. 

VELUTI'NUS. — Latin.     Velvety. 
VE'NTRAL. — Relating  to  the  belly. 
VE'RA.— Latin.     True. 
VERNA'TION. — Applied  to  leaves  in  the 

state  of  buds. 

VERTICE'LLUS. — Latin.     A  whorl.  . 
VERTI'CILLATE.  —  Arranged     in      a 

whorl. 
VE'SCA.  —  Latin.     Edible ;  any  thing 

that  may  be  eaten. 
VE'SICLE. — A  small  bladder. 
VESI'CULAR. — Composed  of  vesicles. 
VEXI'LLUM. — Latin.     A  standard. 
VILLO'SITV.  —  Velvet-like ;  a  covering 

of  soft  hairs,  forming  a  nap  like 

velvet. 

VILLO'SUS. — Latin.     Velvety. 
VINI'FERA. — From  the  Latin,  vinum, 

wine,   and   fero,   I    bear.      Wine. 

bearing. 
VINI'FER^E.  —  Name  of  a   family  of 

plants. 
VIOLA'CE^E.  —  Name  of  a  family  of 

plants. 

VI'RENS. — Latin.    Flourishing,  green. 
VI'RIDIS. — Latin.     Green. 
VI'TES. — Latin.     Plural  of  vitis. 
VI'TIS. — Latin.     A  vine. 
VO'LUBLE. — Twining. 
VO'LVA. — Latin.     A  wrapper. 
ZE'A.  —  From  the  Greek,  zed,  I  Jive. 

Generic  name  of  Indian  corn  o~ 

maize. 


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